Particle-containing membrane and particulate electrode for analyte sensors

ABSTRACT

Systems and methods of use involving sensors having a particle-containing domain are provided for continuous analyte measurement in a host. In some embodiments, a continuous analyte measurement system is configured to be wholly, transcutaneously, intravascularly or extracorporeally implanted.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

Any and all priority claims identified in the Application Data Sheet, orany correction thereto, are hereby incorporated by reference under 37CFR 1.57. This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser.No. 12/562,011, filed on Sep. 17, 2009, which claims the benefit ofpriority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application No.61/098,667, filed on Sep. 19, 2008, the contents of which are herebyincorporated by reference herein in their entirety and are hereby made aportion of this application.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The preferred embodiments relate generally to analyte sensors andmethods for measuring an analyte and/or a drug compound in a sample,such as a bodily fluid or tissue.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

It is routine, as part of today's medical practice, to detect and/ormeasure levels of a wide variety of analytes in biological samples(e.g., fluids, tissues and the like collected from patients) during theprocess of diagnosing, monitoring, and/or prognosticating a patient'smedical status. Such tests are routinely conducted in a variety ofmedical settings (e.g., doctor's office, clinic, hospital, etc.) and inthe home by the host and/or a caretaker.

Diabetes mellitus, a disorder in which the pancreas cannot createsufficient insulin (Type I or insulin dependent) and/or in which insulinis not effective (Type 2 or non-insulin dependent), is one medicalcondition, in which the standard of care involves routine testing ofbodily fluid samples (e.g., blood, interstitial fluid) in order toascertain the patient's (e.g., host's) glucose status, often by the hostor a caretaker. In the diabetic state, the patient suffers from highblood sugar, which may cause an array of physiological derangements (forexample, kidney failure, skin ulcers, or bleeding into the vitreous ofthe eye) associated with the deterioration of small blood vessels. Ahypoglycemic reaction (low blood sugar) may be induced by an inadvertentoverdose of insulin, or after a normal dose of insulin orglucose-lowering agent accompanied by extraordinary exercise orinsufficient food intake.

Conventionally, a diabetic person carries a self-monitoring bloodglucose (SHBG) monitor, which typically requires uncomfortable fingerpricking methods. Due to the lack of comfort and convenience, a diabeticwill typically only measure his or her glucose levels two to four timesper day. Unfortunately, these time intervals may be spread so far apartthat the diabetic will often find out too late a hyperglycemic orhypoglycemic episode, thereby potentially incurring dangerous sideeffects associated with a hyperglycemic or hypoglycemic condition. Infact, not only is it unlikely that a diabetic will take a timely SHBGvalue, but the diabetic will not know if his or her blood glucose valueis rising or falling based on conventional methods, and thus inhibit hisor her ability to make educated insulin therapy decisions.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first aspect, an analyte detection system for continuous in vivodetection of an analyte is provided, the system comprising: a continuousanalyte sensor comprising a working electrode configured forimplantation in a host, wherein the working electrode comprises anelectroactive surface, the continuous analyte sensor further comprisinga membrane located over the working electrode, wherein the membranecomprises an enzyme domain and a particle-containing domain, wherein theparticle-containing domain comprises a conductive component dispersed ina non-conductive component, wherein the conductive component comprises aplurality of conductive particles, wherein the particle-containingdomain is located more distal to the electroactive surface than theenzyme domain, and wherein the particle-containing domain is configuredto electrochemically react with at least one interfering species; andsensor electronics configured to generate a signal associated with ananalyte in the host.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the conductive component comprisesat least one material selected from the group consisting of platinum,platinum-iridium, iridium, palladium, graphite, gold, silver, silverchloride, carbon, and conductive polymers.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, particles comprise from about 10wt. % to about 40 wt. % of the particle-containing domain.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the non-conductive componentcomprises a polymer.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the polymer comprises ananalyte-permeable polymer.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the analyte-permeable polymercomprises a hydrophilic polymer.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the analyte-permeable polymercomprises at least one of polyurethane or silicone.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the sensor electronics areconfigured to apply a potential to the particle-containing domain.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the particle-containing domain isconfigured to electrochemically oxidize the one interfering species.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the particle-containing domain isconfigured to electrochemically reduce the one interfering species.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the particle-containing domain isconfigured to electrochemically react with an amount of interferingspecies, such that an interference component of the signal is less thanabout 20% of a total signal.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the interference component of thesignal is less than about 10% of the total signal.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the interference component of thesignal is less than about 5% of the total signal.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the plurality of conductiveparticles comprise a plurality of positive particles and a plurality ofnegative particles, wherein the positive particles and negativeparticles are configured such that a positive particle and a negativeparticle form an electrochemical cell having a potential sufficient torender a interfering species molecule substantially unable toelectrochemically react with the electroactive surface.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the particles comprise betweenabout 1-wt % and about 60-wt % of the particle-containing domain.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the applied potential is fromabout 0.1V to about 0.8V.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the applied potential is fromabout 0.6V to about 0.7V.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the applied potential isoscillated between at least two potentials.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the applied potential is pulsed.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the applied potential is constant.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the sensor is configured forimplantation in a host.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the particle-containing domain isdisposed coaxially or coplanar with the working electrode.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the enzyme domain comprises anenzyme configured to detect the analyte.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the enzyme comprises glucoseoxidase.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the system further comprises asecond working electrode configured to detect at least one of anon-analyte-related signal or another analyte.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the conductive particles have anaverage weight between about 1×10⁻¹⁷ grams and about 1×10⁻¹⁰ grams.

In an embodiment of the first aspect, the conductive particles have anaverage surface area greater than about 20 m²/g.

In a second aspect, a sensor system for measurement of a species in ahost is provided, the sensor system comprising: an electrode configuredfor implantation in a host, the electrode comprising an electroactivesurface; a membrane disposed over the electrode, the membrane comprisinga particle-containing domain, wherein the particle-containing domaincomprises a sensor element configured to measure a concentration of aspecies; and sensor electronics configured to generate a signalassociated with a concentration of the species in the host.

In an embodiment of the second aspect, the membrane further comprises anenzyme-containing domain located adjacent to the particle-containingdomain.

In an embodiment of the second aspect, the membrane further comprises anoxygen permeable domain located between the electroactive surface andthe particle-containing domain.

In an embodiment of the second aspect, the electroactive surface isconfigured for generating oxygen.

In an embodiment of the second aspect, the particle-containing domain isa first sensor element configured to measure a concentration of a firstspecies, and wherein the electrode is a second sensor element configuredto measure a concentration of a second species.

In an embodiment of the second aspect, the first species and the secondspecies each comprise at least one of an analyte or a drug.

In an embodiment of the second aspect, the particle-containing domainsubstantially reduces flow therethrough of at least one of the firstspecies or the second species.

In an embodiment of the second aspect, the sensor electronics areconfigured to apply a first bias potential to the first sensor elementand to apply a second bias potential to the second sensor element, andwherein the first bias potential and the second bias potential aredifferent.

In a third aspect, a method for detecting a signal associated with ananalyte is provided, the method comprising: providing a continuousanalyte sensor configured for implantation into a tissue of a host, thecontinuous analyte sensor comprising a working electrode and a membranelocated over the working electrode, wherein the membrane comprises anenzyme domain and a particle-containing domain, wherein theparticle-containing domain is located more distal to the workingelectrode than the enzyme domain; electrochemically reacting theparticle-containing domain with at least one interfering species; anddetecting a signal from the continuous analyte sensor, wherein thesignal is indicative of a concentration of an analyte.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, the continuous analyte sensor isconfigured to contact a biological sample.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, the membrane is configured toallow the analyte to diffuse therethrough.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, electrochemically reactingcomprises applying a potential to the particle-containing domain.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, the particle-containing domain isconfigured to electrochemically oxidize with at least one interferingspecies.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, the particle-containing domain isconfigured to electrochemically reduce with at least one interferingspecies.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, the biological sample is from thehost's circulatory system.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, the biological sample is from thehost's extracellular fluid.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, electrochemically reactingcomprises allowing at least one interfering species to diffuse at leastpartially through the particle-containing domain.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, electrochemically reactingcomprises electrochemically reacting an amount of interfering species,such that an interference component of the signal is less than about 20%of the total signal.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, the interference component of thesignal is less than about 10% of the total signal.

In an embodiment of the third aspect, the interference component of thesignal is less than about 5% of the total signal.

In a fourth aspect, an analyte detection device is provided, comprising:a sensor configured for continuous in vivo detection of an analyte, thesensor comprising an electrode comprising at least one of anon-analyte-permeable or analyte-permeable material and a plurality ofconductive particles distributed throughout the material, and a sensormembrane; and sensor electronics configured to generate a signalassociated with the analyte.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the material comprises a polymer.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the polymer comprises awater-permeable polymer.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the conductive particles comprisebetween about 1 wt % and about 60 wt % of the electrode.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the conductive particles compriseat least one material selected from the group consisting of platinum,platinum-iridium, iridium, palladium, graphite, gold, silver, silverchloride, carbon, conductive polymers, and mixtures, alloys ornanocomposites thereof.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the electrode comprises aconfiguration selected from the group consisting of a wire, a fiber, astring, a rod, an orb, a sphere, a ball, an egg, a pyramid, a cone, acube, a rectangle, a polygon, and a polyhedron.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the sensor further comprises asupport and wherein the electrode is disposed on the support.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the electrode comprises a filmcomprising the material and the plurality of conductive particles.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the membrane system is disposedcoaxially on the electrode.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the sensor is configured forimplantation in a host.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the conductive particles have anaverage weight between 1×10⁻¹⁷ grams and about 1×10⁻¹⁹ grams.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the conductive particles have anaverage surface area greater than about 20 m²/g.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the conductive particles have aconcentration that is sufficient for the particle-containing domain tofunction as conductive film.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the concentration of theconductive particles within the particle-containing domain, in volumepercentage, is between about 15% and about 45% of a total volume of theparticle-containing domain.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, an effective surface area of theparticle-containing domain is more than about 3 times greater than aneffective surface of a corresponding domain without conductiveparticles.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the particle-containing domainhas a glucose diffusion coefficient greater than about 1×10⁻¹³ m²/s.

In an embodiment of the fourth aspect, the particle-containing domainhas an oxygen diffusion coefficient greater than about 1×10⁻⁹ m²/s.

In a fifth aspect, a method for manufacturing a continuous analytedetection device is provided, comprising: blending a plurality ofconductive particles and a liquid polymer to form an electrode material;forming an electrode from the electrode material; and applying amembrane to the electrode.

In an embodiment of the fifth aspect, forming an electrode comprisesextruding the electrode material.

In an embodiment of the fifth aspect, the electrode material is on asupport.

In an embodiment of the fifth aspect, forming an electrode comprisesmolding the electrode material.

In an embodiment of the fifth aspect, blending comprises blending aplurality particles comprising at least one material selected from thegroup consisting of platinum, platinum-iridium, iridium, palladium,graphite, gold, silver, silver chloride, carbon, and a conductivepolymer.

In an embodiment of the fifth aspect, blending comprises blending theplurality of conductive particles throughout a water-permeable liquidpolymer.

In an embodiment of the fifth aspect, blending comprises blending theplurality of conductive particles throughout a water-impermeable liquidpolymer.

In an embodiment of the fifth aspect, applying a membrane comprisesapplying an enzyme.

In a sixth aspect, a sensor system for measurement of a concentration ofa first species and a concentration of a second species in a host isprovided, the sensor system comprising: an electrode configured forimplantation in a host, the electrode comprising a first sensor elementconfigured to measure a concentration of a first species; a membrane,with a particle-containing domain, disposed over the electrode, whereinthe membrane comprises a second sensor element configured to measure aconcentration of a second species; and sensor electronics configured togenerate a first signal associated with the first species in the hostand configured to generate a second signal associated with the secondspecies in the host.

In an embodiment of the sixth aspect, the first species comprises a drugand the second species comprises an analyte.

In an embodiment of the sixth aspect, the first species comprises ananalyte and the second species comprises a drug.

In an embodiment of the sixth aspect, the first species comprises afirst analyte and the second species comprises a second analyte.

In an embodiment of the sixth aspect, the particle-containing domaincomprises the second sensor element.

In an embodiment of the sixth aspect, the particle-containing domain islocated between the first sensor element and the second sensor element.

In an embodiment of the sixth aspect, the particle-containing domainsubstantially reduces flow therethrough of at least one of the firstspecies or the second species.

In an embodiment of the sixth aspect, a first bias potential is appliedto the first sensor element and a second bias potential is applied tothe second sensor element, and wherein the first bias potential and thesecond bias potential are different.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a graph illustrating the components of a signal measured by atranscutaneous glucose sensor (after sensor break-in was complete),implanted in a non-diabetic, human volunteer host.

FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an in vivo portion of an analyte sensor,in one embodiment.

FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the analyte sensor of FIG. 2, takenalong line 3-3.

FIG. 4A illustrates one embodiment of the analyte sensor; and FIG. 4Billustrates the embodiment of FIG. 4A after it has undergone an ablationtreatment.

FIG. 5A illustrates another embodiment of the analyte sensor; and FIG.5B illustrates the embodiment of FIG. 5A after it has undergone anablation treatment.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram illustrating the components of sensorelectronics, in one embodiment.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS

The following description and examples describe in detail some exemplaryembodiments. It should be understood that there are numerous variationsand modifications of the devices, systems, and methods described hereinthat are encompassed by the present invention. Accordingly, thedescription of a certain exemplary embodiment should not be deemed tolimit the scope of the present invention.

DEFINITIONS

In order to facilitate an understanding of the preferred embodiments, anumber of terms are defined below.

The terms “physiological parameters” and “physiological boundaries” asused herein are broad terms, and are to be given their ordinary andcustomary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art (and are notto be limited to a special or customized meaning), and refer withoutlimitation to the parameters obtained from continuous studies ofphysiological data in humans and/or animals. For example, a maximalsustained rate of change of glucose in humans of about 4 to 6 mg/dL/minand a maximum acceleration of the rate of change of about 0.1 to 0.2mg/dL/min² are deemed physiologically feasible limits; values outside ofthese limits are considered non-physiological. As another example, ithas been observed that the best solution for the shape of the curve atany point along a glucose signal data stream over a certain time period(for example, about 20 to 30 minutes) is a straight line, which can beused to set physiological limits. These terms are broad enough toinclude physiological parameters for any analyte.

The term “analyte” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to a substance or chemical constituent in abiological fluid (for example, blood, interstitial fluid, cerebralspinal fluid, lymph fluid, urine, sweat, saliva, etc.) that can beanalyzed. Analytes can include naturally occurring substances,artificial substances, metabolites, or reaction products. In someembodiments, the analyte for measurement by the sensing regions,devices, and methods is glucose. However, other analytes arecontemplated as well, including, but not limited to:acarboxyprothrombin; acylcarnitine; adenine phosphoribosyl transferase;adenosine deaminase; albumin; alpha-fetoprotein; amino acid profiles(arginine (Krebs cycle), histidine/urocanic acid, homocysteine,phenylalanine/tyrosine, tryptophan); glucagon; ketones (e.g., acetone);ephedrine; terbutaline; O₂; CO₂; potassium; PCO₂; PO₂; sodium,hematocrit; reactive oxygen species; nitric oxide; diols; pyruvatedehydroxygenase; NADPH oxidase; xanthine oxidase; acyl CoA oxidase;plasma amine oxidase; bilirubin; cholesterol; creatinine; gentisic acid;ibuprofen; L-Dopa; methyl Dopa; salicylate; tetracycline; tolazamide;tolbutamide; human chorionic gonadotropin; anesthetic drugs (e.g.,lidocaine); acetyl CoA; intermediaries in the Kreb's cycle (e.g.,citrate, cis-aconitate, D-isocitrate, succinate, fumarate; malate,etc.); anti-seizure drugs (e.g., ACTH, lorazepam, carbamezepine,carnitine, Acetazolamide, Phenyloin sodium, depakote, divalproex sodium,tiagabine hydrochloride, levetiracetam, clonazepam, lamotrigine,nitrazepam, primidone, gabapentin, paraldehyde, phenobarbital,carbamazepine, topiramate, clorazepate dipotassium, oxcarbazepine,diazepam, Ethosuximide, Zonisamide); glutamine; cytochrome oxidase,heparin andrenostenedione; antipyrine; arabinitol enantiomers; arginase;benzoylecgonine (cocaine); biotimidase; biopterin; c-reactive protein;carnitine; carnosinase; CD4; ceruloplasmin; chenodeoxycholic acid;chloroquine; cholesterol; cholinesterase; conjugated 1-B hydroxy-cholicacid; cortisol; creatine kinase; creatine kinase MM isoenzyme;cyclosporin A; d-penicillamine; de-ethylchloroquine;dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate; DNA (acetylator polymorphism, alcoholdehydrogenase, alcohol oxidase, alpha 1-antitrypsin, cystic fibrosis,Duchenne/Becker muscular dystrophy, glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase,hemoglobin A, hemoglobin S, hemoglobin C, hemoglobin D, hemoglobin E,hemoglobin F, D-Punjab, beta-thalassemia, hepatitis B virus, HCMV,HIV-1, HTLV-1, Leber hereditary optic neuropathy, MCAD, RNA, PKU,Plasmodium vivax, sexual differentiation, 21-deoxycortisol);desbutylhalofantrine; dihydropteridine reductase; diptheria/tetanusantitoxin; erythrocyte arginase; erythrocyte protoporphyrin; esterase D;fatty acids/acylglycines; triglycerides; free B-human chorionicgonadotropin; free erythrocyte porphyrin; free thyroxine (FT4); freetri-iodothyronine (FT3); fumarylacetoacetase; galactose/gal-1-phosphate;galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase; gentamicin; glucose-6-phosphatedehydrogenase; glutathione; glutathione perioxidase; glycocholic acid;glycosylated hemoglobin; halofantrine; hemoglobin variants;hexosaminidase A; human erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase I;17-alpha-hydroxyprogesterone; hypoxanthine phosphoribosyl transferase;immunoreactive trypsin; lactate; lead; lipoproteins ((a), B/A-1, β);lysozyme; mefloquine; netilmicin; phenobarbitone; phenyloin;phytanic/pristanic acid; progesterone; prolactin; prolidase; purinenucleoside phosphorylase; quinine; reverse tri-iodothyronine (rT3);selenium; serum pancreatic lipase; sissomicin; somatomedin C; specificantibodies (e.g., Immunoglobulin M, Immunoglobulin M, IgG adenovirus,anti-nuclear antibody, anti-zeta antibody, arbovirus, Aujeszky's diseasevirus, dengue virus, Dracunculus medinensis, Echinococcus granulosus,Entamoeba histolytica, enterovirus, Giardia duodenalisa, Helicobacterpylori, hepatitis B virus, herpes virus, HIV-1, IgE (atopic disease),influenza virus, Leishmania donovani, leptospira, measles/mumps/rubella,Mycobacterium leprae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Myoglobin, Onchocercavolvulus, parainfluenza virus, Plasmodium falciparum, poliovirus,Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respiratory syncytial virus, rickettsia (scrubtyphus), Schistosoma mansoni, Toxoplasma gondii, Trepenoma pallidium,Trypanosoma cruzi/rangeli, vesicular stomatis virus, Wuchereriabancrofti, yellow fever virus); specific antigens (hepatitis B virus,HIV-1); succinylacetone; sulfadoxine; theophylline; thyrotropin (TSH);thyroxine (T4); thyroxine-binding globulin; trace elements; transferrin;UDP-galactose-4-epimerase; urea; uroporphyrinogen I synthase; vitamin A;white blood cells; and zinc protoporphyrin. Salts, sugar, protein, fat,vitamins, and hormones naturally occurring in blood or interstitialfluids can also constitute analytes in certain embodiments. The analytecan be naturally present in the biological fluid or endogenous, forexample, a metabolic product, a hormone, an antigen, an antibody, andthe like. Alternatively, the analyte can be introduced into the body orexogenous, for example, a contrast agent for imaging, a radioisotope, achemical agent, a fluorocarbon-based synthetic blood, or a drug orpharmaceutical composition, including but not limited to: insulin;ethanol; cannabis (marijuana, tetrahydrocannabinol, hashish); inhalants(nitrous oxide, amyl nitrite, butyl nitrite, chlorohydrocarbons,hydrocarbons); cocaine (crack cocaine); stimulants (amphetamines,methamphetamines, Ritalin, Cylert, Preludin, Didrex, PreState, Voranil,Sandrex, Plegine); depressants (barbituates, methaqualone, tranquilizerssuch as Valium, Librium, Miltown, Serax, Equanil, Tranxene);hallucinogens (phencyclidine, lysergic acid, mescaline, peyote,psilocybin); narcotics (heroin, codeine, morphine, opium, meperidine,Percocet, Percodan, Tussionex, Fentanyl, Darvon, Talwin, Lomotil);designer drugs (analogs of fentanyl, meperidine, amphetamines,methamphetamines, and phencyclidine, for example, Ecstasy); anabolicsteroids; and nicotine. The metabolic products of drugs andpharmaceutical compositions are also contemplated analytes. Analytessuch as neurochemicals and other chemicals generated within the body canalso be analyzed, such as, for example, ascorbic acid, uric acid,dopamine, noradrenaline, 3-methoxytyramine (3MT),3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC), homovanillic acid (HVA),5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT), and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (FHIAA).

The term “continuous analyte sensor” as used herein is a broad term, andis to be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person ofordinary skill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special orcustomized meaning), and refers without limitation to a device thatcontinuously or continually measures analyte concentration (e.g.,glucose), for example, at time intervals ranging from fractions of asecond up to, for example, about 1, 2, 5, 9, 10 minutes, or longer. Itshould be understood that continuous analyte sensors can continuallymeasure glucose concentration without requiring user initiation and/orinteraction for each measurement, such as described with reference toglucose in U.S. Pat. No. 6,001,067, for example.

The phrase “continuous glucose sensing” as used herein is a broad term,and is to be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person ofordinary skill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special orcustomized meaning), and refers without limitation to the period inwhich monitoring of glucose concentration is continuously or continuallyperformed, for example, at time intervals ranging from fractions of asecond up to, for example, about 1, 2, 5, 9, 10 minutes, or longer.

The term “biological sample” as used herein is a broad term, and is tobe given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinaryskill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to a sample of a host body, forexample, blood, serum, plasma, interstitial fluid, cerebral spinalfluid, lymph fluid, ocular fluid, saliva, oral fluid, urine, sweat,excretions, or exudates; swabbed bodily samples, including oral, throat,genital and wound swabs; and solid or semi-solid bodily samples,including fecal samples, tissue, organs, suspension and/or culturesthereof, including cell and/or bacterial cultures thereof, and the like.The sample can be macerated, frozen, thawed, heated, dissolved, diluted,concentrated, amplified, extracted, filtered, separated/divided,cultured and the like, to produce a sample to be analyzed.

The term “host” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be given itsordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art(and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to plants or animals, for example humans.

The term “biointerface membrane” as used herein is a broad term, and isto be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinaryskill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to a membrane that interfaceswith the host, such as but not limited to by physical contact with hostblood, tissue, bodily fluid, and the like.

The term “membrane” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to a thin layer of permeable or semi-permeablematerial applied to the sensor. A membrane can be comprised of one ormore domains (e.g., layers) and is typically constructed of materials ofa few microns thickness or more, which may be permeable to oxygen andare optionally permeable to glucose. In some embodiments, a membrane isformed of one layer having regions (e.g., stratifications), such as butnot limited to functional regions, therein and/or thereon. In otherembodiments, a membrane is formed of two or more layers, wherein one ormore of the layers may be formed of different materials and/or havedifferent functions. In one example, the membrane comprises animmobilized glucose oxidase enzyme, which enables an electrochemicalreaction to occur to measure a concentration of glucose.

The term “domain” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be given itsordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art(and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to regions of a membrane that can be layers,uniform or non-uniform gradients (for example, anisotropic), functionalaspects of a material, or provided as portions of the membrane. In oneexemplary embodiment, a particle-containing domain is disposed moredistal to a sensor's electroactive surface than the enzyme and isconfigured to electrochemically oxidize/reduce noise-causing species,such that the signal from the noise-causing species does notsubstantially contribute to the total signal detected by an analytesensor.

The term “copolymer” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to polymers having two or more differentrepeat units and includes copolymers, terpolymers, tetrapolymers, andthe like.

The term “sensing region” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to the region of a monitoringdevice responsible for the detection of one or more analytes. In oneexample, the sensing region generally comprises a working electrode(anode), a reference electrode (optionally remote from the sensingregion), an insulator disposed therebetween, and a membrane affixed tothe body and covering the electrochemically reactive surfaces of theworking and optionally reference electrode.

The term “electrochemically reactive surface” as used herein is a broadterm, and is to be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a personof ordinary skill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special orcustomized meaning), and refers without limitation to the surface of anelectrode where an electrochemical reaction takes place. In oneembodiment, a working electrode measures hydrogen peroxide creating ameasurable current.

The term “electrochemical cell” as used herein is a broad term, and isto be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinaryskill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to a device in which chemicalenergy is converted to electrical energy.

The term “co-analyte” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to a molecule required in an enzymaticreaction to react with the analyte and the enzyme to form the specificproduct being measured. In one exemplary embodiment of a glucose sensor,an enzyme, glucose oxidase (GOX) is provided to react with glucose andoxygen (the co-analyte) to form hydrogen peroxide.

The term “constant analyte” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to an analyte wherein theconcentration remains relatively constant over a time period, forexample over an hour to a day as compared to other variable analytes.For example, in a person with diabetes, oxygen and urea may berelatively constant analytes in particular tissue compartments relativeto glucose concentration, which can oscillate between about 40 mg/dL andabout 400 mg/dL. Although analytes such as oxygen and urea are known tooscillate to a lesser degree, for example due to physiological processesin a host, they are substantially constant, relative to glucose, and canbe digitally filtered, for example low pass filtered, to minimize oreliminate any relatively low amplitude oscillations. Constant analytesother than oxygen and urea are also contemplated.

The term “proximal” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to the property of being near to a point ofreference such as an origin or a point of attachment. For example, insome embodiments of a membrane that covers an electrochemically reactivesurface, an electrolyte domain is located more proximal to anelectrochemically reactive surface than a resistance domain.

The term “distal” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be given itsordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art(and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to the property of being spaced relatively farfrom a point of reference, such as an origin or a point of attachment.For example, in some embodiments of a membrane that covers anelectrochemically reactive surface, a particle-containing domain islocated more distal to an electrochemically reactive surface than anenzyme domain.

The terms “computer” and “computer system” as used herein are broadterms, and are to be given their ordinary and customary meanings to aperson of ordinary skill in the art (and are not to be limited to aspecial or customized meaning), and refer without limitation to amachine that can be programmed to manipulate data.

The terms “processor module” and “microprocessor” as used herein arebroad terms, and are to be given their ordinary and customary meaning toa person of ordinary skill in the art (and are not to be limited to aspecial or customized meaning), and refer without limitation to acomputer system, state machine, processor, and the like designed toperform arithmetic and logic operations using logic circuitry thatresponds to and processes the basic instructions that drive a computer.

The term “ROM” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be given itsordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art(and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to read-only memory, which is a type of datastorage device manufactured with fixed contents. ROM is broad enough toinclude EEPROM, for example, which is electrically erasable programmableread-only memory (ROM).

The term “RAM” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be given itsordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art(and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to a data storage device for which the orderof access to different locations does not affect the speed of access.RAM is broad enough to include SRAM, for example, which is static randomaccess memory that retains data bits in its memory as long as power isbeing supplied.

The term “A/D Converter” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to hardware and/or software thatconverts analog electrical signals into corresponding digital signals.

The term “RF transceiver” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to a radio frequency transmitterand/or receiver for transmitting and/or receiving signals.

The terms “raw data stream” and “data stream” as used herein are broadterms, and are to be given their ordinary and customary meaning to aperson of ordinary skill in the art (and are not to be limited to aspecial or customized meaning), and refer without limitation to ananalog or digital signal directly related to the analyte concentrationmeasured by the analyte sensor. In one example, the raw data stream isdigital data in “counts” converted by an A/D converter from an analogsignal (for example, voltage or amps) representative of an analyteconcentration. The terms broadly encompass a plurality of time spaceddata points from a substantially continuous analyte sensor, whichcomprises individual measurements taken at time intervals ranging fromfractions of a second up to, for example, 1, 2, or 5 minutes or longer.In some embodiments, raw data includes one or more values (e.g., digitalvalue) representative of the current flow integrated over time (e.g.,integrated value), for example, using a charge counting device, and/orthe like.

The term “counts” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be given itsordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art(and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to a unit of measurement of a digital signal.In one example, a raw data stream measured in counts is directly relatedto a voltage (for example, converted by an A/D converter), which isdirectly related to current from a working electrode.

The term “potentiostat” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to an electrical system thatapplies a potential between the working and reference electrodes of atwo- or three-electrode cell at a preset value and measures the currentflow through the working electrode. Typically, the potentiostat forceswhatever current is necessary to flow between the working and referenceor counter electrodes to keep the desired potential, as long as theneeded cell voltage and current do not exceed the compliance limits ofthe potentiostat.

The terms “operatively connected,” “operably connected,” “operativelylinked” and “operably linked” as used herein are broad terms, and are tobe given their ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinaryskill in the art (and are not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refer without limitation to one or more components beinglinked to another component(s) in a manner that allows transmission ofsignals between the components. For example, one or more electrodes canbe used to detect the amount of glucose in a sample and convert thatinformation into a signal; the signal can then be transmitted to anelectronic circuit. In this case, the electrode is “operably linked” tothe electronic circuit. These terms are broad enough to include wiredand wireless connectivity. In some embodiments, these terms are broadenough to include transmission of energy from one component to another,such as but not limited to powering the component receiving the energyvia inductive coupling.

The term “smoothing” and “filtering” as used herein are broad terms, andare to be given their ordinary and customary meaning to a person ofordinary skill in the art (and are not to be limited to a special orcustomized meaning), and refer without limitation to modification of aset of data to make it smoother and more continuous and remove ordiminish outlying points, for example, by performing a moving average ofthe raw data stream.

The term “algorithm” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to the computational processes (for example,programs) involved in transforming information from one state toanother, for example using computer processing.

The term “regression” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to finding a line in which a set of data has aminimal measurement (for example, deviation) from that line. Regressioncan be linear, non-linear, first order, second order, and so forth. Oneexample of regression is least squares regression.

The term “pulsed amperometric detection” as used herein is a broad term,and is to be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person ofordinary skill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special orcustomized meaning), and refers without limitation to an electrochemicalflow cell and a controller, which applies the potentials and monitorscurrent generated by the electrochemical reactions. The cell can includeone or multiple working electrodes at different applied potentials.Multiple electrodes can be arranged so that they face thechromatographic flow independently (parallel configuration), orsequentially (series configuration).

The term “calibration” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to the relationship and/or theprocess of determining the relationship between sensor data andcorresponding reference data, which may be used to convert sensor datainto meaningful values substantially equivalent to the reference. Insome embodiments, namely in continuous analyte sensors, calibration maybe updated or recalibrated over time if changes in the relationshipbetween the sensor and reference data occur, for example due to changesin sensitivity, baseline, transport, metabolism, and the like.

The term “sensor analyte values” and “sensor data” as used herein arebroad terms, and are to be given their ordinary and customary meaning toa person of ordinary skill in the art (and are not to be limited to aspecial or customized meaning), and refer without limitation to datareceived from a continuous analyte sensor, including one or moretime-spaced sensor data points.

The term “reference analyte values” and “reference data” as used hereinare broad terms, and are to be given their ordinary and customarymeaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art (and are not to belimited to a special or customized meaning), and refer withoutlimitation to data from a reference analyte monitor, such as a bloodglucose meter, and the like, including one or more reference datapoints. In some embodiments, the reference glucose values are obtainedfrom a self-monitored blood glucose (SHBG) test (for example, from afinger or forearm blood test) or an YSI (Yellow Springs Instruments)test, for example.

The term “matched data pairs” as used herein is a broad term, and is tobe given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinaryskill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to reference data (for example,one or more reference analyte data points) matched with substantiallytime corresponding sensor data (for example, one or more sensor datapoints).

The terms “noise-causing species” and “interfering species” as usedherein are broad terms, and are to be given their ordinary and customarymeaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art (and are not to belimited to a special or customized meaning), and refer withoutlimitation to effects and/or species that interfere with the measurementof an analyte of interest in a sensor so as to produce a signal thatdoes not accurately represent the analyte measurement. In one example ofan electrochemical sensor, noise-causing species are compounds with anoxidation potential that overlaps with that of the analyte to bemeasured, and can produce a false positive signal. In another example ofan electrochemical sensor, noise-causing species are substantiallynon-constant compounds (e.g., the concentration of an interferingspecies fluctuates over time). Noise-causing species can be separatedinto two classes, those that are internally derived and those that areexternally derived. In general, internally derived noise-causing speciesare produced by the body as a result of daily metabolism, wound healing,a disease process and the like, and include but are not limited tocompounds with electroactive acidic, amine or sulfhydryl groups, urea,lactic acid, phosphates, citrates, peroxides, amino acids, amino acidprecursors or break-down products, nitric oxide (NO), NO-donors,NO-precursors, bilirubin, cholesterol, creatinine, dopamine, and uricacid electroactive species produced during cell metabolism and/or woundhealing, electroactive species that arise during body pH changes and thelike. In general, externally derived noise-causing species are compoundstaken into the body (e.g., by injection, ingestion, inhalation and thelike) such as drugs and vitamins, and include but are not limited tocompounds with electroactive acidic, amine or sulfhydryl groups,phosphates, citrates, peroxides, amino acids, acetaminophen, ascorbicacid, dopamine, ephedrine, ibuprofen, L-dopa, methyl dopa, salicylate,tetracycline, tolazamide, tolbutamide, triglycerides and the like.Electroactive species that cause constant and/or non-constant noise areincluded in the definitions of “noise-causing species” and “interferingspecies.”

The term “conductive component” as used herein is a broad term, and isto be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinaryskill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning) and refers without limitation to materials that have a tendencyto behave as an electrical conductor. In some embodiments, an electricalconductor contains movable charges (e.g., electrical charges), which canbe forced to move when an electric potential is applied in accordancewith Ohm's law. In some embodiments, the term refers to a sufficientamount of electrical conductance (e.g., material property) to provide anecessary function (electrical conduction). In some embodiments, aconductive component can electrochemically interact with anothercompound of opposite charge, such that the other compound is oxidized orreduced. In some embodiments, an electrical conductor facilitates acharge transfer (e.g., uses electrical energy) to initiate a chemicalreaction at a catalyst.

The term “non-conductive component,” as used herein is a broad term, andis to be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person ofordinary skill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special orcustomized meaning) and refers without limitation to materials that havea tendency to act as an electrical insulator. In one exemplaryembodiment, a non-conductive component can be placed between twoelectrically conductive materials, to prevent movement of electricitybetween the two electrically conductive materials. In some embodiments,the term refers to a sufficient amount of insulative property (e.g., ofa material) to provide a necessary function (electrical insulation). Theterms “electrical insulator,” “insulator” and “non-conductive material”can be used interchangeably herein.

The terms “particulate” and “particle” as used herein are broad terms,and are to be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person ofordinary skill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special orcustomized meaning), and refers without limitation to a particle of anyshape or size. Particle size can be measured in angstroms (Å),nanometers (nm), microns (μm), and the like. In some embodiments, aplurality of particles can have a range of particle sizes. In someembodiments, particles can be characterized by an ability to passthrough one or more defined mesh/screen sizes, by weight, and the like.As a non-limiting example, in some embodiments, the conductive componentincludes a plurality of particles, such as but not limited to conductivemetal particles or conductive polymer particles. The particle-containingdomain may comprise particulates that are physically separated,particulates that physically contact other particulates, or acombination of both.

The term “dispersion” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to a stable or unstable chemical system offine particles distributed in a medium (e.g., gas, liquid, or colloid).For example, in some embodiments, dispersion comprises a plurality offine particles formed of a conductive material, which are distributed ina non-conductive material, such as but not limited to a polymer.

The term “coaxial” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to having a common axis, having coincidentaxes or mounted on concentric shafts.

The term “coplanar” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to lying in the same plane.

The term “in vivo portion” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to a portion of a device that isto be implanted or inserted into the host. In one exemplary embodiment,an in vivo portion of a transcutaneous sensor is a portion of the sensorthat is inserted through the host's skin and resides within the host.

The term “sensor break-in” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to the time required for thesensor's output signal to provide a substantially linear response to theanalyte concentration (e.g., glucose level). In some embodiments, sensorbreak-in can include electrochemical break-in and/or membrane break-in.

The term “membrane break-in” as used herein is a broad term, and is tobe given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinaryskill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to a time necessary for themembrane to equilibrate to its surrounding environment (e.g.,physiological environment in vivo).

The term “electrochemical break-in” as used herein is a broad term, andis to be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person ofordinary skill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special orcustomized meaning), and refers without limitation to a time, aftersensor insertion in vitro and/or in vivo, at which the current outputfrom the sensor settles to a stable function (e.g., a linear response)following the application of the potential to the sensor. Numerousmethods of accelerating electrochemical break-in can be used, such as,but not limited to, configuring the sensor electronics to aid indecreasing the break-in time of the sensor by applying different voltagesettings (for example, starting with a higher voltage setting and thenreducing the voltage setting). Additional methods of accelerating sensorbreak-in time are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,411,647, for example,which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

The term “noise” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be given itsordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art(and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to a component of an analyte sensor signalthat is not related to the analyte concentration. In one example of aglucose sensor, the noise is composed substantially of signalcontribution due to factors other than glucose (for example,noise-causing species, non-reaction-related hydrogen peroxide, or otherelectroactive species with an oxidation potential that overlaps withthat of hydrogen peroxide). In general, noise comprises componentsrelated to constant and non-constant factors (e.g., constant noise andnon-constant noise), including endogenous and exogenous interferingspecies.

The terms “constant noise” and “constant background” as used herein arebroad terms, and are to be given their ordinary and customary meaning toa person of ordinary skill in the art (and is not to be limited to aspecial or customized meaning), and refer without limitation to thecomponent of the noise signal that remains relatively constant overtime. In some embodiments, constant noise may be referred to as“background” or “baseline.” For example, certain electroactive compoundsfound in the human body are relatively constant factors (e.g., baselineof the host's physiology). In some circumstances, constant backgroundnoise can slowly drift over time (e.g., increase or decrease), howeverthis drift need not adversely affect the accuracy of a sensor, forexample, because a sensor can be calibrated and re-calibrated and/or thedrift measured and compensated for.

The terms “non-constant noise” and “non-constant background” as usedherein are broad terms, and are to be given their ordinary and customarymeaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art (and is not to belimited to a special or customized meaning), and refer withoutlimitation to a component of the background signal that is relativelynon-constant, for example, transient and/or intermittent. For example,certain electroactive compounds, are relatively non-constant (e.g.,intermittent interferents due to the host's ingestion, metabolism, woundhealing, and other mechanical, chemical and/or biochemical factors),which create intermittent (e.g., non-constant) “noise” on the sensorsignal that can be difficult to “calibrate out” using a standardcalibration equations (e.g., because the background of the signal doesnot remain constant).

The term “GOX” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be given itsordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art(and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to the enzyme Glucose Oxidase (e.g., GOX orGOx is an abbreviation/acronym).

The term “mechanism” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be givenits ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in theart (and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to a process, technique, or system forachieving a result. The term is not limited by the processes, techniquesor systems described herein, but also includes any process, technique,or system that can achieve a stated result.

The term “redox” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be given itsordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art(and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to “oxidation/reduction,” which describes allchemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidationstate) changed. The term “oxidation” describes the loss of electrons bya molecule, atom or ion. In contrast, the term “reduction” describes thegain of electrons by a molecule, atom or ion. For example, hydrogenperoxide reduces to hydroxide in the presence of an acid:

H₂O₂+2e ⁻→2OH⁻

The term “redox potential” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to the tendency of a chemicalspecies to acquire electrons and thereby be reduced. Each species hasits own intrinsic reduction potential, the more positive the potential,the greater the species' affinity for electrons and tendency to bereduced.

The term “hydrophilic” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to the property of havingaffinity for water. For example, a hydrophilic polymer (e.g., having ahydrophilic component) is primarily soluble in water or has a tendencyto absorb water. In general, the more hydrophilic a polymer is, the morethat polymer tends to dissolve in, mix with, or be wetted by water. Inone exemplary embodiment, the hydrophilic component of a hydrophilicpolymer promotes the movement of water (e.g., by diffusion or othermeans) through a membrane formed of the hydrophilic polymer, such as bylowering the thermodynamic barrier to movement of water through themembrane. In some embodiments, a hydrophilic polymer includes ahydrophilic-hydrophobic or hydrophobic-hydrophilic polymer.

The terms “hydrophilic-hydrophobic” and “hydrophobic-hydrophilic” asused herein are broad terms, and are to be given their ordinary andcustomary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art (and are notto be limited to a special or customized meaning), and refer withoutlimitation to the property of having both hydrophilic and hydrophobicsubstituents and/or characteristics, such as, for example, a polymer.The terms hydrophilic-hydrophobic and hydrophobic-hydrophilic are usedinterchangeably herein, and are not meant to imply if either thehydrophilic or the hydrophobic substituents are the major component ofthe polymer.

The term “hydrophobic” as used herein is a broad term, and is to begiven its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skillin the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to the property of lackingaffinity for, or even repelling, water. For example, the morehydrophobic a polymer, the more that polymer tends to not dissolve in,not mix with, or not be wetted by water. Hydrophilicity andhydrophobicity can be spoken of in relative terms, such as but notlimited to a spectrum of hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity within a group ofcompounds. In some embodiments wherein two or more polymers are beingdiscussed, the term “hydrophobic polymer” can be defined based on thepolymer's relative hydrophobicity when compared to another, morehydrophilic polymer. In some embodiments, a hydrophobic polymer includesa hydrophobic-hydrophilic or a hydrophilic-hydrophobic polymer.

The term “clinical acceptability” as used herein is a broad term, and isto be given its ordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinaryskill in the art (and is not to be limited to a special or customizedmeaning), and refers without limitation to determination of the risk ofan inaccuracy to a patient. Clinical acceptability considers a deviationbetween time corresponding analyte measurements (for example, data froma glucose sensor and data from a reference glucose monitor) and the risk(for example, to the decision making of a person with diabetes)associated with that deviation based on the analyte value indicated bythe sensor and/or reference data. An example of clinical acceptabilitycan be 85% of a given set of measured analyte values within the “A” and“B” region of a standard Clarke Error Grid when the sensor measurementsare compared to a standard reference measurement.

The term “comprising” as used herein is synonymous with “including,”“containing,” or “characterized by,” and is inclusive or open-ended anddoes not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps.

The terms “substantial” and “substantially” as used herein are broadterms, and are to be given their ordinary and customary meaning to aperson of ordinary skill in the art (and are not to be limited to aspecial or customized meaning), and refer without limitation to asufficient amount that provides a desired function. For example, amembrane interference domain of some embodiments is configured to resista sufficient amount of interfering species such that tracking of analytelevels (e.g., glucose levels) can be achieved, which may include anamount greater than 50 percent, an amount greater than 60 percent, anamount greater than 70 percent, an amount greater than 80 percent, andan amount greater than 90 percent of interfering species. In somepreferred embodiments, the phrase “substantially accurate” means thatthe calibrated analyte level is sufficiently accurate to be displayed tothe host, for example, due to its clinical acceptability or statisticalaccuracy. For example, the data meet the ±20% accuracy standard (e.g.,wherein the data are compared to a “gold standard” for glucosemeasurement, such as a YSI glucose analyzer) for blood glucose meters(BGM) established by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).

Overview

The following description and examples describe in detail some exemplaryembodiments of devices and methods for providing continuous measurementof an analyte concentration, including a sensor having a membrane domainconfigured to oxidize and/or reduce noise-causing species. It is to beunderstood that there are numerous variations and modifications of thedevices and methods described herein that are encompassed by the presentinvention. Accordingly, the description of a certain exemplaryembodiment should not be deemed to limit the scope of the presentinvention.

Although the description that follows is primarily directed at glucosemonitoring devices, these sensor configurations are not limited to usein devices that measure or monitor glucose in a biological fluid.Rather, these sensor configurations can be applied to a variety ofdevices, including for example, those that detect and quantify otheranalytes present in biological samples (including, but not limited to,cholesterol, amino acids lactate, calcium, pH, sodium, potassium,oxygen, carbon dioxide/bicarbonate, blood nitrogen urea (BUN),creatinine, albumin, total protein, alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate amino transferase, bilirubin, and/or hematocrit),especially those analytes that are substrates for oxidase enzymes (see,e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,703,756).

Noise

Generally, implantable sensors measure a signal related to an analyte ofinterest in a host. For example, an electrochemical sensor can measureat least one of glucose, calcium, pH, sodium, potassium, oxygen, carbondioxide/bicarbonate, blood nitrogen urea (BUN), creatinine, albumin,total protein, alkaline phosphatase, alanine amino transferase,aspartate amino transferase, bilirubin, and/or hematocrit in a host,such as an animal (e.g., a human). Generally, the signal is convertedmathematically to a numeric value indicative of analyte status, such asanalyte concentration. The signal detected by the sensor can be brokendown into its component parts. For example, in an enzymaticelectrochemical analyte sensor, after sensor break-in is complete, thetotal signal can be divided into an “analyte component,” which isrepresentative of analyte (e.g., glucose, calcium, pH, sodium,potassium, oxygen, carbon dioxide/bicarbonate, blood nitrogen urea(BUN), creatinine, albumin, total protein, alkaline phosphatase, alanineamino transferase, aspartate amino transferase, bilirubin, and/orhematocrit) concentration, and a “noise component,” which is caused bynon-analyte-related species that have a redox potential thatsubstantially overlaps with the redox potential of the analyte (ormeasured species, e.g., H₂O₂) at an applied voltage. The noise componentcan be further divided into its component parts, e.g., constant andnon-constant noise. It is not unusual for a sensor to experience acertain level of noise. In general, “constant noise” (also referred toas constant background or baseline) is caused by non-analyte-relatedfactors that are relatively stable over time, including but not limitedto electroactive species that arise from generally constant (e.g.,daily) metabolic processes. Constant noise can vary widely betweenhosts. In contrast, “non-constant noise” (also referred to asnon-constant background) is caused by non-constant, non-analyte-relatedspecies (e.g., non-constant noise-causing electroactive species) thatarise during transient events, such as during host metabolic processes(e.g., wound healing or in response to an illness), or due to ingestionof certain compounds (e.g., certain drugs). In some circumstances, noisecan be caused by a variety and/or plurality of noise-causingelectroactive species.

FIG. 1 is an exemplary graph illustrating the components of a signalmeasured by a glucose sensor (after sensor break-in was complete) in anon-diabetic volunteer host. The X-axis indicates time. The Y-axisindicates the signal amplitude (in counts) detected by the sensor. Theterm “counts” as used herein is a broad term, and is to be given itsordinary and customary meaning to a person of ordinary skill in the art(and is not to be limited to a special or customized meaning), andrefers without limitation to a unit of measurement of a digital signal.In one example, a raw data stream measured in counts is directly relatedto a voltage (for example, converted by an A/D converter), which isdirectly related to current from a working electrode.

The total signal collected by the sensor is represented by line 1000,which includes components related to glucose, constant noise, andnon-constant noise, which are described in more detail elsewhere herein.In some embodiments, the total signal is a raw data stream, which caninclude an averaged or integrated signal, for example, by using acharge-counting device.

The non-constant noise component of the total signal is represented byline 1010. The non-constant noise component 1010 of the total signal1000 can be obtained by filtering the total signal 1000 to obtain afiltered signal 1020 using any of a variety of known filteringtechniques, and then subtracting the filtered signal 1020 from the totalsignal 1000. In some embodiments, the total signal can be filtered usinglinear regression analysis of the n (e.g., 10) most recent sampledsensor values. In some embodiments, the total signal can be filteredusing non-linear regression. In some embodiments, the total signal canbe filtered using a trimmed regression, which is a linear regression ofa trimmed mean (e.g., after rejecting wide excursions of any point fromthe regression line). In this embodiment, after the sensor recordsglucose measurements at a predetermined sampling rate (e.g., every 30seconds), the sensor calculates a trimmed mean (e.g., removes highestand lowest measurements from a data set) and then regresses theremaining measurements to estimate the glucose value. In someembodiments, the total signal can be filtered using a non-recursivefilter, such as a finite impulse response (FIR) filter. An FIR filter isa digital signal filter, in which every sample of output is the weightedsum of past and current samples of input, using only some finite numberof past samples. In some embodiments, the total signal can be filteredusing a recursive filter, such as an infinite impulse response (IIR)filter. An IIR filter is a type of digital signal filter, in which everysample of output is the weighted sum of past samples of input and outputand current samples of input. In some embodiments, the total signal canbe filtered using a maximum-average (max-average) filtering algorithm,which smoothes data based on the discovery that the substantial majorityof signal artifacts observed after implantation of glucose sensors inhumans, for example, is not distributed evenly above and below theactual blood glucose levels. It has been observed that many data setsare actually characterized by extended periods in which the noiseappears to trend downwardly from maximum values with occasional highspikes. To overcome these downward trending signal artifacts, themax-average calculation tracks with the highest sensor values, anddiscards the bulk of the lower values. Additionally, the max-averagemethod is designed to reduce the contamination of the data withunphysiologically high data from the high spikes. The max-averagecalculation smoothes data at a sampling interval (e.g., every 30seconds) for transmission to the receiver at a less frequenttransmission interval (e.g., every 5 minutes), to minimize the effectsof low non-physiological data. First, the microprocessor finds andstores a maximum sensor counts value in a first set of sampled datapoints (e.g., 5 consecutive, accepted, thirty-second data points). Aframe shift time window finds a maximum sensor counts value for each setof sampled data (e.g., each 5-point cycle length) and stores eachmaximum value. The microprocessor then computes a rolling average (e.g.,5-point average) of these maxima for each sampling interval (e.g., every30 seconds) and stores these data. Periodically (e.g., every 10^(th)interval), the sensor outputs to the receiver the current maximum of therolling average (e.g., over the last 10 thirty-second intervals as asmoothed value for that time period (e.g., 5 minutes)). In someembodiments, the total signal can be filtered using a “Cone ofPossibility Replacement Method,” which utilizes physiologicalinformation along with glucose signal values in order to define a “cone”of physiologically feasible glucose signal values within a human.Particularly, physiological information depends upon the physiologicalparameters obtained from continuous studies in the literature as well asour own observations. For example, in some embodiments of a glucosesensor, a first physiological parameter uses a maximal sustained rate ofchange of glucose in humans (e.g., about 4 to 5 mg/dL/min) and a maximumsustained acceleration of that rate of change (e.g., about 0.1 to 0.2mg/min/min). A second physiological parameter uses the knowledge thatrate of change of glucose is lowest at the maxima and minima, which arethe areas of greatest risk in patient treatment. A third physiologicalparameter uses the fact that the best solution for the shape of thecurve at any point along the curve over a certain time period (e.g.,about 20-25 minutes) is a straight line. It is noted that the maximumrate of change can be narrowed in some instances. Therefore, additionalphysiological data can be used to modify the limits imposed upon theCone of Possibility Replacement Method for sensor glucose values. Forexample, the maximum per minute rate change can be lower when thesubject is lying down or sleeping; on the other hand, the maximum perminute rate change can be higher when the subject is exercising, forexample. In some embodiments, the total signal can be filtered usingreference changes in electrode potential to estimate glucose sensor dataduring positive detection of signal artifacts from an electrochemicalglucose sensor, the method hereinafter referred to as reference driftreplacement. In these embodiments, the electrochemical glucose sensorcomprises working, counter, and reference electrodes. This methodexploits the function of the reference electrode as it drifts tocompensate for counter electrode limitations during oxygen deficits, pHchanges, and/or temperature changes. In alternative implementations ofthe reference drift method, a variety of algorithms can therefore beimplemented based on the changes measured in the reference electrode.Linear algorithms, and the like, are suitable for interpreting thedirect relationship between reference electrode drift and thenon-glucose rate limiting signal noise such that appropriate conversionto signal noise compensation can be derived. Additional descriptions ofsignal filtering can be found in U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2005-0043598-A1 and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0235331-A1, each of which is incorporated herein by reference inits entirety.

Referring again to FIG. 1, in some embodiments, the constant noisesignal component 1030 can be obtained by calibrating the sensor signalusing reference data, such as one or more blood glucose values obtainedfrom a hand-held blood glucose meter, from which the baseline “b” of aregression can be obtained, representing the constant noise signalcomponent 1030. In some embodiments, noise is also baseline. Othermethods for calibrating the signal include those described in U.S.Patent Application Publication No. US-2005-0027463-A1, U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2005-0187720-A1, U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2005-0021666-A1, U.S. Patent Application PublicationNo. US-2005-0027180-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2005-0203360-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2005-0043598-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0032706-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0016381-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0033254-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2005-0143635-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0027385-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0213611-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0083617-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2006-0020187-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2006-0270923-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0027370-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2006-0258929-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0119703-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0108942-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0235331-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0194936-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0183061-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0200789-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.2009-0192366-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.2009-0192722-A1, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.2009-0156924-A1, each of which is incorporated herein by reference inits entirety.

In this embodiment, the analyte signal component 1040 was obtained bysubtracting the constant noise signal component 1030 from the filteredsignal 1020.

Noise is clinically important because it can induce error and can reducesensor performance, such as by providing a signal that causes theanalyte concentration to appear higher or lower than the actual analyteconcentration. For example, upward or high noise (e.g., noise thatcauses the signal to increase) can cause the host's glucoseconcentration to appear higher than it truly is, which can lead toimproper treatment decisions. Similarly, downward or low noise (e.g.,noise that causes the signal to decrease) can cause the host's glucoseconcentration to appear lower than it is, which can also lead toimproper treatment decisions. Accordingly, noise reduction is desirable.

Noise can be caused by a variety of factors, ranging from mechanicalfactors to biological factors. For example, it is known that macro- ormicro-motion, ischemia, pH changes, temperature changes, pressure,stress, or even unknown mechanical, electrical, and/or biochemicalsources can cause noise, in some embodiments. Noise-causing species,which are known to cause non-constant noise, can be compounds, such asdrugs that have been administered to the host (e.g., externallyderived), or intermittently produced products (e.g., internally derived)of various host metabolic processes. Exemplary noise-causing speciesinclude but are not limited to a variety of drugs (e.g., acetaminophen),H₂O₂ from exterior sources (e.g., produced outside the sensor membrane),and reactive metabolic species (e.g., reactive oxygen and nitrogenspecies, some hormones, etc.). Some known noise-causing species for aglucose sensor include but are not limited to acetaminophen, ascorbicacid, bilirubin, cholesterol, creatinine, dopamine, ephedrine,ibuprofen, L-dopa, methyldopa, salicylate, tetracycline, tolazamide,tolbutamide, triglycerides, and uric acid. In some embodiments, themembrane includes a particle-containing domain located more distal tothe electroactive surface than the enzyme and configured toelectrochemically oxidize or electrochemically reduce noise-causingspecies, such as but not limited to noise causing species having anelectrical potential that substantially overlaps with that of themeasured compound (e.g., H₂O₂).

In some experiments of implantable glucose sensors, it was observed thatnoise increased when some hosts were intermittently sedentary, such asduring sleep or sitting for extended periods. When the host began movingagain, the noise quickly dissipated. Noise that occurs duringintermittent, sedentary periods (also referred to as intermittentsedentary noise) can occur during relatively inactive periods, such assleeping. Non-constant, non-analyte-related factors can causeintermittent sedentary noise, such as was observed in one exemplarystudy of non-diabetic individuals implanted with enzymatic-type glucosesensors built without enzyme. These sensors (without enzyme) could notreact with or measure glucose and therefore provided a signal due tonon-glucose effects only (e.g., constant and non-constant noise). Duringsedentary periods (e.g., during sleep), extensive, sustained signal wasobserved on the sensors. Then, when the host got up and moved around,the signal rapidly corrected. As a control, in vitro experiments wereconducted to determine if a sensor component might have leached into thearea surrounding the sensor and caused the noise, but none was detected.From these results, it is believed that a host-produced non-analyterelated reactant was diffusing to the electrodes and producing theunexpected non-constant noise signal.

While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that aconcentration increase of noise-causing electroactive species, such aselectroactive metabolites from cellular metabolism and wound healing,can interfere with sensor function and increase the level of noiseobserved during host sedentary periods. For example, local lymphpooling, which can occur when a part of the body is compressed or whenthe body is inactive, can cause, in part, this local build up ofinterferents (e.g., electroactive metabolites). Similarly, a localaccumulation of wound healing metabolic products (e.g., at the site ofsensor insertion) tends to increase the level of noise on the sensor.Noise-causing electroactive species can include, but are not limited to,compounds with electroactive acidic, amine or sulfhydryl groups, urea,lactic acid, phosphates, citrates, peroxides, amino acids (e.g.,L-arginine), amino acid precursors or break-down products, nitric oxide(NO), NO-donors, NO-precursors or other electroactive species ormetabolites produced during cell metabolism and/or wound healing, forexample. For a more complete discussion of noise and its sources, seeU.S. Patent Application Publication No. US-2007-0027370-A1, which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Noise can be recognized and/or analyzed in a variety of ways. Forexample, in some circumstances, non-constant noise changes faster thanthe analyte signal and/or does not follow an expected analyte signalpattern; and lasts for a period of about 10 hours or more, 8 hours, 6hours, 4 hours, 2 hours, 60 minutes, 30 minutes, or 10 minutes or less.In some embodiments, the sensor data stream can be monitored, signalartifacts detected, and data processing performed based at least in parton whether or not a signal artifact has been detected, such as describedin U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US-2005-0043598-A1, which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Additional discussionof noise recognition and analysis can also be found in U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2007-0032706-A1, which is incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety.

A signal component's percentage of the total signal can be determinedusing a variety of methods of quantifying an amplitude of signalcomponents and total signal, from each components percent contributioncan be calculated. In some embodiments, the signal component(s) can bequantified by comparing the peak-to-peak amplitudes of each signalcomponent for a time period, whereby the peak-to-peak amplitudes of eachcomponent can be compared to the peak-to-peak amplitude of the totalsignal to determine it's percentage of the total signal. In someembodiments, the signal component(s) can be quantified by determiningthe Root Mean Square (RMS) of the signal component for a time period. Inone exemplary of Root Mean Square analysis of signal components, thesignal component(s) can be quantified using the formula:

${RMS} = \sqrt{\frac{\sum\left( {x_{1}^{2} + x_{2}^{2} + x_{3}^{2} + x_{n}^{2}} \right)}{n}}$

wherein there are a number (n) of data values (x) for a signal (e.g.,analyte component, non-constant noise component, constant noisecomponent, and/or total signal) during a predetermined time period(e.g., about 1 day, about 2 days, about 3 days, etc). Once the signalcomponents and/or total signal are quantified, the signal components canbe compared to the total signal to determine a percentage of each signalcomponent within the total signal.

In some conventional analyte sensors, non-constant noise can be asignificant component of the total signal, such as 30%, 40%, 50%, 60% ormore of the total signal. Additionally, non-constant noise can occur fordurations of minutes or hours, in some circumstances. In somecircumstances, non-constant noise can be equivalent to an analyte signalassociated with a glucose concentration of about 400 mg/dL or more.Noise can induce error in the sensor reading, which can reduce sensoraccuracy and clinically useful data. However, a high level of sensoraccuracy is critical for successful patient care and desirable clinicaloutcomes. In some embodiments, as described in greater detail elsewhereherein, the particle-containing domain, such as an electrode and/ormembrane domain, is formed of conductive particles dispersed in anon-conductive polymer or polymer blend, such that the negative effectsof noise are substantially reduced and clinically useful data areprovided to the user.

Analyte Sensors

The preferred embodiments provide a continuous analyte sensor thatmeasures a concentration of the analyte of interest or a substanceindicative of the concentration or presence of the analyte. In someembodiments, the analyte sensor is an invasive, minimally invasive, ornon-invasive device, for example a subcutaneous, transdermal,intravascular, or extracorporeal device. In some embodiments, theanalyte sensor may analyze a plurality of intermittent biologicalsamples. The analyte sensor may use any method for analyte-measurement,including enzymatic, chemical, physical, electrochemical,spectrophotometric, polarimetric, calorimetric, radiometric, and thelike.

In general, electrochemical analyte sensors provide at least one workingelectrode and at least one reference electrode, which are configured tomeasure a signal associated with a concentration of the analyte in thehost, such as described in more detail below. The output signal istypically a raw data stream that is used to provide a useful value ofthe measured analyte concentration in a host to the patient or doctor,for example.

In general, continuous analyte sensors define a relationship betweensensor-generated measurements (for example, current in pA, nA, ordigital counts after A/D conversion) and a reference measurement (forexample, glucose concentration mg/dL or mmol/L) that are meaningful to auser (for example, patient or doctor). In the case of an implantablediffusion-based glucose oxidase electrochemical glucose sensor, thesensing mechanism generally depends on phenomena that are linear withglucose concentration, for example: (1) diffusion of glucose through amembrane (e.g., biointerface membrane) situated between implantationsite and/or the electrode surface, (2) an enzymatic reaction within themembrane, and (3) diffusion of the H₂O₂ to the sensor. Because of thislinearity, calibration of the sensor can be understood by solving anequation:

y=mx+b

wherein y represents the sensor signal (e.g., counts), x represents theestimated glucose concentration (e.g., mg/dL), m represents the sensorsensitivity to glucose (e.g., counts/mg/dL), and b represents thebaseline signal (e.g., counts). When both sensitivity m and baseline(background) b change over time in vivo, calibration has generallyrequires at least two independent, matched data pairs (x₁, y₁; x₂, y₂)to solve for m and b and thus allow glucose estimation when only thesensor signal, y, is available. Matched data pairs can be created bymatching reference data (for example, one or more reference glucose datapoints from a blood glucose meter, and the like) with substantially timecorresponding sensor data (for example, one or more glucose sensor datapoints) to provide one or more matched data pairs, such as described inco-pending U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US-2005-0027463-A1,which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. In someimplantable glucose sensors, such as described in more detail in U.S.Pat. No. 6,329,161 to Heller et al., the sensing layer utilizesimmobilized mediators (e.g., redox compounds) to electrically connectthe enzyme to the working electrode, rather than using a diffusionalmediator. In some implantable glucose sensors, such as described in moredetail in U.S. Pat. No. 4,703,756, the system has two oxygen sensorssituated in an oxygen-permeable housing, one sensor being unaltered andthe other contacting glucose oxidase allowing for differentialmeasurement of oxygen content in bodily fluids or tissues indicative ofglucose levels. A variety of systems and methods of measuring glucose ina host are known, all of which may benefit from some of all of thepreferred embodiments to provide a sensor having a signal that is notsubstantially affected by non-constant noise.

Additional description of analyte sensor configurations can be found inU.S. Patent Application Publication No. US-2008-0083617-A1, U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2007-0213611-A1, U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2007-0027385-A1, and U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2005-0143635-A1, each of which is incorporated hereinby reference in its entirety.

Sensor Components Overview

In some embodiments, an analyte sensor includes a sensing mechanism 34with a small structure (e.g., small-structured, micro- or small diametersensor), for example, a needle-type sensor, in at least a portionthereof (see FIG. 2). As used herein the term “small-structured”preferably refers to an architecture with at least one dimension lessthan about 1 mm. The small structured sensing mechanism can bewire-based, substrate based, or any other architecture. In somealternative embodiments, the term “small-structured” can also refer toslightly larger structures, such as those having their smallestdimension being greater than about 1 mm, however, the architecture(e.g., mass or size) is designed to minimize the foreign body response(FBR) due to size and/or mass. In some embodiments, a biointerfacemembrane (e.g., membrane or sensing membrane) is formed onto the sensingmechanism 34 as described in more detail below. In some alternativeembodiments, the sensor is configured to be wholly implanted in a host,such as in the host abdomen; such is described in U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2006-0020187-A1. In still otherembodiments, the sensor is configured to be implanted in a host vesselor extracorporeally, such as is described in U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2007-0027385-A1, U.S. Patent Application PublicationNo. US-2008-0108942-A1, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0197890-A1, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0119703-A1, each of which is incorporated herein by reference inits entirety.

In the illustrated embodiments, the sensor is an enzyme-basedelectrochemical sensor, wherein the working electrode 38 measures thehydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) produced by the enzyme catalyzed reaction ofglucose being detected and creates a measurable electronic current (forexample, detection of glucose utilizing glucose oxidase produceshydrogen peroxide as a by-product, H₂O₂ reacts with the surface of theworking electrode producing two protons (2H⁺), two electrons (2e⁻) andone molecule of oxygen (O₂) which produces the electronic current beingdetected), such as described in more detail herein. Preferably, one ormore potentiostat(s) is employed to monitor the electrochemical reactionat the electroactive surface of the working electrode(s). Thepotentiostat applies a potential to the working electrode and itsassociated reference electrode to determine the current produced at theworking electrode. The current that is produced at the working electrode(and flows through the circuitry to the counter electrode) issubstantially proportional to the amount of H₂O₂ that diffuses to theworking electrode. The output signal is typically a raw data stream thatis used to provide a useful value of the measured analyte concentrationin a host to the host or doctor, for example. In some alternativeembodiments, the sensing mechanism includes electrodes deposited on aplanar substrate, wherein the thickness of the implantable portion isless than about 1 mm. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,175,752 and U.S.Pat. No. 5,779,665.

Some alternative analyte sensors that can benefit from the systems andmethods of some embodiments include U.S. Pat. No. 5,711,861, U.S. Pat.No. 6,642,015, U.S. Pat. No. 6,654,625, U.S. Pat. No. 6,565,509, U.S.Pat. No. 6,514,718, U.S. Pat. No. 6,465,066, U.S. Pat. No. 6,214,185,U.S. Pat. No. 5,310,469, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,683,562, U.S. Pat. No.6,579,690, U.S. Pat. No. 6,484,046, U.S. Pat. No. 6,512,939, and U.S.Pat. No. 6,424,847, for example. These patents are not inclusive of allapplicable analyte sensors; in general, it should be understood that thedisclosed embodiments are applicable to a variety of analyte sensorconfigurations.

Any of a variety of electrodes and/or electrode configurations can beemployed for the analyte sensor. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the invivo portion of an exemplary embodiment of a continuous analyte sensor34, also referred to as a transcutaneous analyte sensor, or needle-typesensor, particularly illustrating the sensing mechanism. Preferably, thesensing mechanism comprises a small structure as defined herein and isadapted for insertion under the host's skin, and the remaining body ofthe sensor (e.g., electronics, etc.) can reside ex vivo. In otherembodiments (not shown), the analyte sensor is configured for exposureto the host's circulatory system, extracorporeal and/or whollyimplantable. In the illustrated embodiment, the analyte sensor 34includes two electrodes, i.e., a working electrode 38 and at least oneadditional electrode 30, which may function as a counter and/orreference electrode, hereinafter referred to as the reference electrode30.

In some exemplary embodiments, each electrode is formed from a fine wirewith a diameter of from about 0.001 or less to about 0.01 inches ormore, for example, and is formed from, e.g., a plated insulator, aplated wire, or bulk electrically conductive material. Although theillustrated electrode configuration and associated text describe onepreferred method for forming a transcutaneous sensor, a variety of knowntranscutaneous sensor configurations can be employed with thetranscutaneous analyte sensor system of some embodiments, such as aredescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,695,860 to Ward et al., U.S. Pat. No.6,565,509 to Say et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,248,067 to Causey III et al.,and U.S. Pat. No. 6,514,718 to Heller et al.

In preferred embodiments, the working electrode comprises a wire formedfrom a conductive material, such as platinum, platinum-iridium,palladium, graphite, gold, carbon, conductive polymer, alloys, and thelike. Although the electrodes can by formed by a variety ofmanufacturing techniques (bulk metal processing, deposition of metalonto a substrate, and the like), it can be advantageous to form theelectrodes from plated wire (e.g., platinum on steel wire) or bulk metal(e.g., platinum wire). It is believed that electrodes formed from bulkmetal wire provide superior performance (e.g., in contrast to depositedelectrodes), including increased stability of assay, simplifiedmanufacturability, resistance to contamination (e.g., which can beintroduced in deposition processes), and improved surface reaction(e.g., due to purity of material) without peeling or delamination. Insome circumstances, as discussed elsewhere herein, and electrode can beformed of a plurality of conductive particles distributed throughout anon-conductive component, such as but not limited to a polymer or apolymer blend. Such “particulate electrodes” have the advantage ofreduced material costs, moldability/conformability, and materialproperties, such as strength and fatigue resistance due to thenon-conductive (e.g., polymer) component.

The working electrode 38 is configured to measure the concentration ofan analyte, such as but not limited to glucose, uric acid, cholesterol,lactate and the like. In an enzymatic electrochemical sensor fordetecting glucose, for example, the working electrode measures thehydrogen peroxide produced by an enzyme catalyzed reaction of theanalyte being detected and creates a measurable electronic current. Forexample, in the detection of glucose wherein glucose oxidase (GOX)produces hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct, H₂O₂ reacts with the surfaceof the working electrode producing two protons (2H⁺), two electrons(2e⁻) and one molecule of oxygen (O₂), which produces the electroniccurrent being detected.

The working electrode 38 is covered with an insulating material, forexample, a non-conductive polymer. Dip-coating, spray-coating,vapor-deposition, or other coating or deposition techniques can be usedto deposit the insulating material on the working electrode. In oneembodiment, the insulating material comprises parylene, which can be anadvantageous polymer coating for its strength, lubricity, and electricalinsulation properties. Generally, parylene is produced by vapordeposition and polymerization of para-xylylene (or its substitutedderivatives). However, any suitable insulating material can be used, forexample, fluorinated polymers, polyethyleneterephthalate, polyurethane,polyimide, other nonconducting polymers, and the like. Glass or ceramicmaterials can also be employed. Other materials suitable for use includesurface energy modified coating systems such as are marketed under thetrade names AMC18, AMC148, AMC141, and AMC321 by Advanced MaterialsComponents Express of Bellafonte, Pa. In some alternative embodiments,however, the working electrode may not require a coating of insulator.

Preferably, the reference electrode 30, which may function as areference electrode alone, or as a dual reference and counter electrode,is formed from silver, silver/silver chloride and the like. Preferably,the electrodes are juxtapositioned and/or twisted (e.g., coaxial) withor around each other; however other configurations are also possible. Inone example, the reference electrode 30 is helically wound around theworking electrode 38 as illustrated in FIG. 2. The assembly of wires maythen be optionally coated together with an insulating material, similarto that described above, in order to provide an insulating attachment(e.g., securing together of the working and reference electrodes).Additional description of sensor electrodes can be found in U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2006-0015024-A1 and U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2006-0020187-A1, each of which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

In some embodiments, a radial window is formed through the insulatingmaterial to expose a circumferential electroactive surface of theworking electrode, using known methods. Additionally, sections ofelectroactive surface of the reference electrode are exposed.Alternatively, a tangential exposed electroactive window can be formed,for example, by stripping only one side of the coated assemblystructure. In other alternative embodiments, the window can be providedat the tip of the coated assembly structure such that the electroactivesurfaces are exposed at the tip of the sensor. Other methods andconfigurations for exposing electroactive surfaces can also be employed.

In some alternative embodiments, additional electrodes can be includedwithin the assembly, for example, a three-electrode system (working,reference, and counter electrodes) and/or an additional workingelectrode (e.g., an electrode which can be used to generate oxygen,which is configured as a baseline subtracting electrode, or which isconfigured for measuring additional analytes). For example, in someembodiments, the sensor includes a first working electrode, which isconfigured to detect a signal comprising analyte-related signal andnon-analyte related signal (e.g., noise-causing species) components, anda second working electrode, which is configured to detect only thenon-analyte related signal component, wherein the signal detected viathe second working electrode can be used to determine the component ofthe total signal related to only the analyte. In other embodiments, thesensor is configured and arranged to detect two or more analytes, andcan include two or more working electrodes (e.g., a glucose-detectingworking electrode and a potassium-detecting working electrode), areference electrode and/or a counter electrode, for example, U.S. Pat.No. 7,081,195, U.S. Pat. No. 7,366,556 U.S. Pat. No. 7,310,544, U.S.Patent Application Publication No. US-2005-0143635-A1, U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2007-0027385-A1, U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2007-0027385-A1, U.S. Patent Application PublicationNo. US-2007-0027284-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0086042-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0119703-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0235331-A1, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2009-0018424-A1 each of which is incorporated by reference herein inits entirety, describe some systems and methods for implementing andusing additional working, counter, and/or reference electrodes.

In some embodiments, the sensing region may include reference and/orother electrodes associated with the glucose-measuring working electrodeand/or separate reference and/or counter electrodes associated withoptional auxiliary working electrode(s). In yet another embodiment, thesensing region may include a glucose-measuring working electrode, anauxiliary working electrode, two counter electrodes (one for eachworking electrode), and one shared reference electrode. In yet anotherembodiment, the sensing region may include a glucose-measuring workingelectrode, an auxiliary working electrode, two reference electrodes, andone shared counter electrode. However, a variety of electrode materialsand configurations can be used with the implantable analyte sensor ofthe preferred embodiments.

In general, a membrane 32 is disposed over the sensor's electrodes andprovides one or more of the following functions: 1) protection of theexposed electrode surface from the biological environment (e.g., cellimpermeable domain); 2) diffusion resistance (limitation) of the analyte(e.g., resistance domain); 3) a catalyst for enabling an enzymaticreaction (e.g., enzyme domain); 4) limitation or blocking of interferingspecies (e.g., particle-containing domain and optional interferencedomain); and/or 5) hydrophilicity at the electrochemically reactivesurfaces of the sensor interface (e.g., electrolyte domain). However, itis understood that a sensing membrane modified for other sensors, forexample, by including fewer or additional domains is within the scope ofsome embodiments. The membrane can be located over the sensor body bymechanical or chemical methods such as described in U.S. PatentApplication Publication Nos. 2006/0015020 and 2005/0245799, each ofwhich is incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Additionaldescription of the membrane 32 can be found in U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2005-0245799-A1 and U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2005-0242479-A1 (which describes biointerface andsensing membrane configurations and materials that may be applied tosome embodiments), each of which is incorporated herein by reference inits entirety.

FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view through the sensor of FIG. 2 on line3-3, illustrating the membrane 32 in one embodiment. In this embodiment,the membrane includes an electrode domain 43, an interference domain 44,and enzyme domain 46, a diffusion resistance domain 48, and aparticle-containing domain 50 wrapped around the platinum wire workingelectrode 38. In some embodiments, this membrane can include additionaldomains, as described herein. In some embodiments, the transcutaneouswire sensor is configured for short-term implantation (e.g., from about1 to 30 days). In some embodiments, the sensor is configured forintravascular or extracorporeal implantation (see, e.g., U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2005-0143635-A1, U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2007-0027385-A1, U.S. Patent Application PublicationNo. US-2007-0213611-A1, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0083617-A1, each of which is incorporated by reference herein inits entirety). In some embodiments, the sensor is configured forlong-term implantation, such as a wholly implantable sensor, forexample. The membrane 32 (e.g., sensing membrane) of some embodimentsincludes an enzyme domain 46, a resistance domain 48, and aparticle-containing domain 50, and may include additional domains, suchas an electrode domain 43, and interference domain 44, a cellimpermeable domain (also referred to as a bioprotective layer), and/oran oxygen domain (not shown). The membrane 32 is disposed over theelectroactive surfaces of the electrode system and provides one or moreof the following functions: 1) protection of the exposed electrodesurface from the biological environment (cell impermeable domain); 2)diffusion resistance (limitation) of the analyte (resistance domain); 3)a catalyst for enabling an enzymatic reaction (enzyme domain); 4)limitation or blocking of interfering species (particle-containingdomain and optional interference domain); and/or 5) hydrophilicity atthe electrochemically reactive surfaces of the sensor interface(electrolyte domain). However, it is understood that a sensing membranemodified for other sensors, for example, by including fewer oradditional domains is within the scope of some embodiments. The membranecan be located over the sensor body by mechanical or chemical methodssuch as described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2006-0015020-A1 and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2005-0245799-A1, which are incorporated herein by reference in theirentirety. Additional description of the membrane 32 can be found in U.S.Patent Application Publication No. US-2005-0245799-A1 and U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2005-0242479-A1 (which describesbiointerface and sensing membrane configurations and materials that maybe applied to some embodiments) each of which is incorporated herein byreference in its entirety.

In some embodiments, the sensing membrane can be deposited on theelectroactive surfaces of the electrode material using known thin orthick film techniques (for example, spraying, electro-depositing,dipping, casting separately from the sensor and then wrapped around it,printing, and the like). It is noted that the sensing membrane thatsurrounds the working electrode does not have to be the same structureas the sensing membrane that surrounds a reference electrode, etc. Forexample, the enzyme domain deposited over the working electrode does notnecessarily need to be deposited over the reference and/or counterelectrodes.

FIG. 4A illustrates another embodiment of an electrode. In thisparticular embodiment, the electrode comprises a conductive core 410, afirst layer 420 that at least partially surrounds the core 410, a secondlayer 430 that at least partially surrounds the first layer 420, and athird layer 440 that at least partially surrounds the second layer 430.These layers, which collectively form an elongated body, can bedeposited onto the conductive core by any of a variety of techniques,such as, for example, by employing dip coating, plating, extrusion, orspray coating processes. In some embodiments, the first layer 420 cancomprise a conductive material, such as, for example, platinum,platinum-iridium, gold, palladium, iridium, graphite, carbon, aconductive polymer, an alloy, and/or the like, configured to providesuitable electroactive surfaces for one or more working electrodes. Incertain embodiments, the second layer 430 can correspond to an insulatorand comprise an insulating material, such as a non-conductive (e.g.,dielectric) polymer (e.g., polyurethane, polyimide, or parylene). Insome embodiments, the third layer 440 can correspond to a referenceelectrode and comprise a conductive material, such as, asilver-containing material, including, but not limited to, apolymer-based conducting mixture.

FIG. 4B illustrates one embodiment of the electrode of FIG. 4A, after ithas undergone laser ablation treatment. As shown, a window region 422 isformed when the ablation removes the second and third layers 430, 440,to expose an electroactive surface of the first conductive layer 420,wherein the exposed electroactive surface of the first conductive layer420 correspond to a working electrode.

FIG. 5A illustrates another embodiment of an electrode. In thisembodiment, in addition to an conductive core 510, a first layer 520, asecond layer 530, and a third layer 540, the electrode further comprisesa fourth layer 550 and a fifth layer 570. In a further embodiment, thefirst layer 520 and the second layer 530 can be formed of a conductivematerial and an insulating material, respectively, similar to thosedescribed in the embodiment of FIG. 4A. However, in this particularembodiment, the third layer 540 can be configured to provide the sensorwith a second working electrode, in addition to the first workingelectrode provided by the first layer 520. The fourth layer 550 cancomprise an insulating material and provide insulation between the thirdlayer 540 and the fifth layer 560, which can correspond to a referenceelectrode and comprise the aforementioned silver-containing material. Itis contemplated that other similar embodiments are possible. Forexample, in alternative embodiments, the electrode can have 6, 7, 8, 9,10, or more layers, each of which can be formed of conductive ornon-conductive material. FIG. 5B illustrates one embodiment of theelectrode of FIG. 5A, after it has undergone laser ablation treatment.Here, two window regions, a first window region 522 and a second windowregion 542, are formed, with each window region having a different depthand corresponding to a working electrode distinct from the other.

Particle-Containing Membrane Domain

Referring again to FIG. 3, in preferred embodiments, the continuousanalyte sensor includes a particle-containing domain 50 that is capableof reducing noise derived from noise-causing species, such asnon-constant noise and/or constant noise. In preferred embodiments, theparticle-containing domain 50 is capable of scavenging certain compounds(e.g., interfering species, non-reaction-related hydrogen peroxide, orother electroactive species with an oxidation potential that overlapswith that of hydrogen peroxide) that contribute to non-glucose relatedsignal before they reach the working electrode. Preferably, theparticle-containing domain is located more distal to (e.g., radiallyoutward) the sensor's electroactive surface than the enzyme (e.g.,enzyme domain). FIG. 3 shows the particle-containing domain 50 as beingthe most distal membrane domain. However, the particle-containing domaincan be located adjacent to the enzyme domain, or between the enzymedomain and a more distal domain. The membrane of FIG. 3 is depicted asbeing composed of several membrane layers or domains. However, in someembodiments, the membrane can be formed of a single layer that comprisesstructural and/or functional regions (e.g., the layer can be stratified,as in a gradient). For example, in one embodiment, the single layer cancomprise three regions, a proximal region containing the enzyme, anintermediate region configured to restrict diffusion of excess analyte,and a distal region containing the conductive particles dispersed in thematerial of which the layer is formed and functioning as aparticle-containing domain. In other embodiments, for example, themembrane can be formed of two layers, such as a proximal enzymedomain/layer and a distal domain/layer that contains structural and/orfunctional regions, such as a region that contains the conductiveparticles and functions as a particle-containing domain. Accordingly,interfering species, non-reaction-related hydrogen peroxide, and/orother electroactive species with an oxidation potential that overlapswith hydrogen peroxide are oxidized/reduced at a location other than theworking (measuring) electrode. Thus, sensor baseline is reduced andstabilized, break-in time is reduced, and sensor accuracy is improved.

A variety of noise-causing species can be reduced at a potential of fromabout ±0.1V to about ±1.2V or more/less; for example, acetaminophen isreduced at a potential of about +0.4 V. In some embodiments, theparticle-containing domain is configured to electrochemically oxidize orelectrochemically reduce (e.g., electrochemically oxidize/reduce) atleast one noise-causing species having a potential within this range,such that the noise-causing species does not substantially interact withthe electroactive surface, or contribute to the total signal, asdescribed elsewhere herein. In preferred embodiments, theparticle-containing domain is configured and arranged toelectrochemically oxidize or electrochemically reduce an amount ofnon-constant noise-causing species, such that the non-constant noisecomponent of the signal is less than about 20% of the total signal. Inmore preferred embodiments, the non-constant noise component of thesignal is less than about 10% of the total signal. In still morepreferred embodiments, the non-constant noise component of the signal isless than about 5% of the total signal.

In some embodiments, no potential is applied to the particle-containingdomain (e.g., a “non-powered” particle-containing domain). Non-poweredparticle-containing domains can be less complicated and less expensiveto manufacture, as compared to other types of particle-containingdomains described herein. In other embodiments, described elsewhereherein, a potential is applied to the particle-containing domain (a“powered” particle-containing domain). Applying power to theparticle-containing domain (e.g., the powered particle-containingdomain) can increase the range of noise-causing species that can beelectrochemically oxidized/reduced, such as to species having a redoxpotential outside of the ±0.1V to about ±1.2V range of the non-poweredparticle-containing domain. In other embodiments, a particle-containingdomain is configured to be alternately powered and non-powered forperiods of time. In still other embodiments, a non-poweredparticle-containing domain is configured to generate a potential (e.g.,self-powered particle-containing domain). Self-poweredparticle-containing domains can be less expensive/complicated tomanufacture than the powered particle-containing domains but canoxidize/reduce a wider range of interfering compounds than a non-poweredparticle-containing domain. In some embodiments, a sensor includes twoor more particle-containing domains, such as, powered and non-powereddomains, powered and self-powered domains, non-powered and self-powereddomains, or two different types of non-powered domains, for example.

In preferred embodiments, the particle-containing domain 50 may comprisea non-conductive component with a conductive component dispersedtherein, for example, wherein the conductive component comprises aplurality of conductive particles having a sufficient concentration suchthat current can be transferred between particles, such that themembrane domain is conductive. In some embodiments, the non-conductivecomponent of the particle-containing domain comprises a polymer. In someembodiments, the polymer is analyte-permeable, for example, wherein ananalyte, such as glucose, can diffuse through the polymer. In someembodiments, the polymer comprises a hydrophilic polymer. In somepreferred embodiments, the polymer comprises at least one ofpolyurethane or silicone. A variety of hydrophilic polymers, which finduse in the preferred embodiments, are described elsewhere herein.

As described above, the particle-containing domain may include aconductive component dispersed throughout a non-conductive component.For example, in some embodiments, the conductive component comprises aplurality of conductive particles. The conductive particles can have avariety of shapes such as but not limited to spherical shapes,irregular, three-dimensional shapes, fibers, micro-laminates ofconductive materials and the like, including blends, amalgams,laminates, and the like. The conductive particles may have anyappropriate size. For example, in the embodiments wherein the conductiveparticles have a substantially spherical shape, the particles may be onaverage from about 0.01 microns to about 2 microns in diameter,preferably from about 0.03 microns to about 1 micron in diameter, andmore preferably from about 0.05 microns to about 0.5 microns indiameter. In certain embodiments, the particles may have an averageweight of from about 1×10⁻¹⁷ grams to about 1×10⁻¹⁰ grams, preferablyfrom about 1×10⁻¹⁵ grams to about 1×10⁻¹¹ grams, and more preferablyfrom about 1×10⁻¹³ grams to about 1×10⁻¹² grams. The conductiveparticles can be of any suitable material. In some embodiments, theconductive component is a metal, such as but not limited to platinum,iridium, platinum-iridium, palladium, ruthenium, rhodium, osmium,carbon, graphite, platinum-coated carbon, platinum-coated graphite,gold, and the like. In some embodiments, the conductive component is aconductive polymer, such as but not limited to polyacetylene,polypyrrole, polythiophene, polyaniline, polyfluorene,poly(3-alkylthiophene), polytetrathiafulvalene, polynaphthalenes,poly(p-phenylene sulfide), and poly(para-phenylene vinylene). In someembodiments, the conductive component includes a blend of metals and/orconductive polymers. The conductive particles can be substantiallyhomogeneous or heterogeneous in shape, size, surface area, orcomposition.

In some embodiments, the conductive particles have a concentration thatis sufficient for the particle-containing domain to function asconductive film. In certain embodiments, the concentration of theconductive particles within the particle-containing domain, in volumepercentage, is from about 0.1% to about 99.9% of the total volume of theparticle-containing domain, preferably from about 0.5% to about 5%, morepreferably from about 15% to about 45%, most preferably from about 50%to about 80%. In some embodiments, the particle-containing domaincontains from about 1 wt. % or less to about 90 wt. % or more conductivecomponent dispersed in the non-conductive component. In someembodiments, the particle-containing domain contains from about 10 wt. %to about 60 wt. % or more conductive particles dispersed in thenon-conductive component, for example, from about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 15,20, 25 or 30% to about 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, or 90%. In preferredembodiments, the particle-containing domain contains from about 20 wt. %to about 40 wt. % or more conductive particles dispersed in thenon-conductive component. Increasing the number and/or volume ofconductive particles tends to increase the surface area of the particlesthat are present on the surface of the particle-containing domain. Insome embodiments, the effective surface area of the particle-containingdomain is more than about 2 times greater than an effective surface of acorresponding domain without conductive particles, preferably more thanabout 3 times greater, more preferably more than about 5 times greater,more preferably more than about 7 times greater, more preferably morethan about 10 times greater, more preferably more than about 20 timesgreater, more preferably more than about 25 times greater, and mostpreferably more than about 25 times greater. In embodiments wherein theparticle-containing domain is disposed most distal to the sensor'selectroactive surface, such as in the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3,an increase in the effective surface area of the particle-containingdomain tends to also increase the effective surface area of theinterface between the particle-containing domain and the biologicalsample (e.g., interstitial fluid, blood, etc.) being tested. In turn,greater amounts of analytes and oxygen can diffuse through the membrane,thereby providing amplification of the analyte signal, as compared to asignal of a corresponding domain without particles. Additionally, withsome sensors, electrochemical reactions involving the analyte occurssubstantially at the top surface of the domain or of the electroactivesurface of the electrode, and the material (e.g., AgCl) used to form theelectrode may be consumed during the lifetime of the sensor. Thus, byproviding an increased effective surface area, the lifetime for thesensor may be lengthened. In certain embodiments, particles areincorporated into the particle-containing domain to create an unevenand/or irregular surface, such that the effective surface area of theparticle-containing domain increases by more than about 20 times,compared to a corresponding domain without the particles and with asubstantially evened surface, preferably by more than about 15 times,more preferably by more than about 10 times, more preferably by morethan about 3 times, more preferably by more than about 2 times, morepreferably by more than about 85 percent, more preferably by more thanabout 50 percent, and more preferably by more than about 20 percent. Thesurface area of the particle-containing domain can also be increased byincreasing the surface area of the particles, some of which are presenton the surface of the particle-containing domain. In some embodiments,the average surface area of the particles is greater than about 20 m²/g,preferably greater than about 50 m²/g, more preferably greater thanabout 100 m²/g, more preferably greater than about 200 m²/g and mostpreferably greater than about 400 m²/g, as determined by the BET(Brunauer, Emmett, Teller) method for determining surface area byphysical adsorption of gas molecules.

In certain embodiments the particle-containing domain is configured andarranged to electrochemically oxidize or electrochemically reduce anamount of non-constant noise-causing species, such that the non-constantnoise component of the signal is less than about 20% of the totalsignal. In some embodiments, the non-constant noise component of thesignal is less than about 18%, 15%, 10%, 8%, 5%, 3%, or 1% of the totalsignal for a time period of about 1, 3, 5, 7 or more days.

In preferred embodiments, the conductive component has a sufficientlylow reduction/oxidation potential so that a noise-causing (e.g.,background-causing) species can be oxidized/reduced, such that thenegative effects of noise are substantially reduced, and clinicallyuseful data are provided to the user.

In preferred embodiments, the non-conductive component, in which theconductive component (e.g., conductive particles) is dispersed, is apolymer. In preferred embodiments, the polymer is analyte-permeable.Analyte-permeable polymers that may be used include but are not limitedto, hydrophilic and hydrophobic polymer blends that are sufficientlyhydrophilic such that the analyte (e.g., glucose) can pass therethrough.These analyte-permeable polymers include but not limited topolyurethanes, polyurethane ureas having about 5% to about 45%hydrophile (e.g., PEO, PVD, or Pluronics) content, silicones, siliconeblends (e.g., silicone polymer/hydrophobic-hydrophilic polymer blend;including but not limited to components such as polyvinylpyrrolidone(PVP), polyhydroxyethyl methacrylate, polyvinylalcohol, polyacrylicacid, polyethers such as polyethylene glycol or polypropylene oxide, andcopolymers thereof, including, for example, di-block, tri-block,alternating, random, comb, star, dendritic, and graft copolymers).Additional description of hydrophilic and hydrophobic material blendscan be found U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US-2006-0270923-A1,U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US-2007-0027370-A1, U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2007-0244379-A1, U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2007-0197890-A1, U.S. Patent Application PublicationNo. US-2008-0045824-A1, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2006-0258761-A1, each of which is incorporated by reference herein inits entirety.

In one exemplary embodiment, the particle-containing domain comprises ablend of a silicone polymer with a hydrophilic polymer. By “hydrophilicpolymer,” it is meant that the polymer has an affinity for water, due tothe presence of one or more hydrophilic substituents, and generally isprimarily soluble in water or has a tendency to absorb water. In oneexample, the hydrophilic component of a hydrophilic polymer promotes themovement of water and/or compounds in the water (e.g., by diffusion orother means) through a membrane formed of the hydrophilic polymer, suchas by lowering the thermodynamic barrier to movement of compounds in thewater into the membrane.

Some polymers, such as certain hydrophilic polymers, include bothhydrophilic and hydrophobic substituents. The hydrophilic andhydrophobic substituents of a polymer can affect the polymer's behaviorin certain circumstances, as seen, for example, insilicone/hydrophilic-hydrophobic blend materials and micellar jackets,which are discussed elsewhere herein. Using PEO-PPO-PEO as an exemplarypolymer, the polymer's major component (PEO) is hydrophilic and canprovide an overall hydrophilic character to the molecule (e.g., themolecule generally behaves in a hydrophilic manner). However, thehydrophobic component (PPO) of the polymer makes it possible for thepolymer to have some hydrophobic character (e.g., for portions of themolecule to behave in the manner of a hydrophobic molecule), in somesituations. In some circumstances, such as formation of micellar jacketsin a silicone/hydrophilic-hydrophobic blend material, the polymerself-organizes, relative to the silicone (e.g., silicone globule(s))such that the hydrophobic PPO is adjacent to the silicone (which ishydrophobic) and the two PEO groups project away from the silicone(e.g., due to thermodynamic forces). Depending upon the circumstance(e.g., the polymer selected), variations of the micellar jacketstructure described above (e.g., opposite orientations) are possible.For example, it is believed that in a mixture of PPO-PEO-PPO andsilicone, the PPO groups self-orient toward the silicone and the PEOcenter is oriented away from the silicone.

In some embodiments, the non-conductive component includes at least onepolymer containing a surface-active group (see U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 12/413,231, filed Mar. 27, 2009 and entitled “Polymer Membranesfor Continuous In Vivo Analyte Sensors” and U.S. patent application Ser.No. 12/413,166, filed Mar. 27, 2009 and entitled “Polymer Membranes forContinuous In Vivo Analyte Sensors,” each of which is incorporated byreference herein in its entirety). In some embodiments, thesurface-active group-containing polymer is a surface-active endgroup-containing polymer. In some embodiments, the surface-active endgroup-containing polymer is a polymer having covalently bondedsurface-active end groups. However, other surface-activegroup-containing polymers can be formed by: modification offully-reacted base polymers via the grafting of side chain structures;surface treatments or coatings applied after membrane fabrication (e.g.,via surface-modifying additives); blending of a surface-modifyingadditive to a base polymer before membrane fabrication; immobilizationof by physical entrainment during synthesis; and/or the like. Basepolymers useful for the preferred embodiments include any linear and/orbranched polymer on the backbone structure of the polymer. Suitable basepolymers include epoxies, polyolefins, polysiloxanes, polyethers,acrylics, polyesters, carbonates, and polyurethanes, whereinpolyurethanes include polyurethane copolymers such aspolyether-urethane-urea, polycarbonate-urethane, polyether-urethane,silicone-polyether-urethane, silicone-polycarbonate-urethane,polyester-urethane, and/or the like. Advantageous base polymers of thepreferred embodiments are selected for their bulk properties, forexample, tensile strength, flex life, modulus, and/or the like, forexample, polyurethanes are known to be relatively strong and providenumerous reactive pathways, which properties are advantageous as bulkproperties for a membrane domain of the preferred embodiments. Preferredlinear base polymers include biocompatible segmented block polyurethanecopolymers comprising hard and soft segments. Preferably, the hardsegment of the copolymer has a molecular weight of from about 160 toabout 10,000, and more preferably from about 200 to about 2,000; whilethe preferred molecular weight of the soft segment is from about 200 toabout 1,000,000, and more preferably from about 400 to 9,000. Preferredpolyisocyanates for the preparation of the hard segment of the copolymerare aromatic or aliphatic diisocyanates. The soft segment used in thepreparation of the polyurethane is preferably a polyfunctional aliphaticpolyol, a polyfunctional aliphatic or aromatic amine, and/or the likeuseful for creating permeability of the analyte (e.g., glucose)therethrough, for example, polyvinyl acetate (PVA), poly(ethyleneglycol) (PEG), polyacrylamide, acetates. polyethylene oxide (PEO),polyethylacrylate (PEA), polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and variationsthereof (e.g., PVP vinyl acetate), wherein PVP and variations thereofare be preferred for their hydrolytic stability in some embodiments.

The term “surface-active group” and “surface-active end group” as usedherein are broad terms and are used in their ordinary sense, including,without limitation, surface-active oligomers or other surface-activemoieties having surface-active properties, such as alkyl groups, whichpreferentially migrate towards a surface of a membrane formed therefrom. Surface active groups preferentially migrate towards air (e.g.,driven by thermodynamic properties during membrane formation). In someembodiments, the surface-active groups are covalently bonded to the basepolymer during synthesis. In some preferred embodiments, surface-activegroups include silicone, sulfonate, fluorine, polyethylene oxide,hydrocarbon groups, and the like. The surface activity (e.g., chemistry,properties) of a membrane domain including a surface-activegroup-containing polymer, reflects the surface activity of thesurface-active groups rather than that of the base polymer. In otherwords, surface-active groups control the chemistry at the surface (e.g.,the biological contacting surface) of the membrane without compromisingthe bulk properties of the base polymer. The surface-active groups ofthe preferred embodiments are selected for desirable surface properties,for example, non-constant noise-blocking ability, break-in time(reduced), ability to repel charged species, cationic or anionicblocking, and/or the like. In some preferred embodiments, thesurface-active groups are located on one or more ends of the polymerbackbone, and referred to as surface-active end groups, wherein thesurface-active end groups are believed to more readily migrate thesurface of the biointerface domain/layer formed from the surface-activegroup-containing polymer in some circumstances. Additional descriptionof surface-modified polymers and/or membranes can be found in U.S.patent application Ser. No. 12/413,231, filed Mar. 27, 2009 and entitled“Polymer Membranes for Continuous In Vivo Analyte Sensors” and U.S.patent application Ser. No. 12/413,166, filed Mar. 27, 2009 and entitled“Polymer Membranes for Continuous In Vivo Analyte Sensors,” each ofwhich is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

In some embodiments, one or more domains of the membrane are formed frommaterials such as silicone, polytetrafluoroethylene,polyethylene-co-tetrafluoroethylene, polyolefin, polyester,polycarbonate, biostable polytetrafluoroethylene, homopolymers,copolymers, terpolymers of polyurethanes, polypropylene (PP),polyvinylchloride (PVC), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polybutyleneterephthalate (PBT), polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), polyether etherketone (PEEK), polyurethanes, cellulosic polymers, poly(ethylene oxide),poly(propylene oxide) and copolymers and blends thereof, polysulfonesand block copolymers thereof including, for example, di-block,tri-block, alternating, random and graft copolymers. U.S. PatentApplication Publication No. US-2005-024579912-A1, which is incorporatedherein by reference in its entirety, describes biointerface and sensingmembrane configurations and materials that may be applied to someembodiments.

In some embodiments, the particle-containing domain 50 includes apolyurethane (or polyurethane urea) membrane with both hydrophilic andhydrophobic regions to control the diffusion of glucose and oxygen to ananalyte sensor, the membrane being fabricated easily and reproduciblyfrom commercially available materials. Polyurethane is a polymerproduced by the condensation reaction of a diisocyanate and adifunctional hydroxyl-containing material. A polyurethaneurea is apolymer produced by the condensation reaction of a diisocyanate and adifunctional amine-containing material. Preferred diisocyanates includealiphatic diisocyanates containing from about 4 to about 8 methyleneunits. Diisocyanates containing cycloaliphatic moieties can also beuseful in the preparation of the polymer. The material that forms theparticle-containing domain can be any of those known in the art asappropriate for use in membranes in sensor device and as havingsufficient permeability to allow relevant compounds to pass through it,for example, to allow an oxygen molecule to pass through the membranefrom the sample under examination in order to reach the active enzyme orelectrochemical electrodes. In some embodiments, the particle-containingdomain can be configured from non-polyurethane type materials includingbut not limited to vinyl polymers, polyethers, polyesters, polyamides,inorganic polymers such as polysiloxanes and polycarbosiloxanes, naturalpolymers such as cellulosic and protein based materials, and mixtures ofcombinations thereof. Additional description of polyurethane membranescan be found in PCT International Publication No. WO1992/013271.

In some preferred embodiments, the particle-containing domain isdeposited on to the enzyme domain, such as, but not limited to, one thatis part of a membrane system comprising as one or more planar and/orconcentric layers. The deposition may yield a domain thickness fromabout 0.05 microns or less to about 20 microns or more, more preferablyfrom about 0.05, 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 1,1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, or 3.5 microns to about 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 19.5 microns, and more preferably stillfrom about 2, 2.5, or 3 microns to about 3.5, 4, 4.5, or 5 microns. Theparticle-containing domain may be deposited by any of variety oftechniques, such as, vapor deposition, spray coating, spin coating, ordip coating, for example. In one preferred embodiment, dipping is thepreferred deposition technique.

As described elsewhere herein, some of the particle-containing domainsdescribed herein may have a conductive particles concentration that issufficient for the particle-containing domains to function as conductivefilms. In addition to being capable of functioning as conductive films,some of these particle-containing domains are capable of allowing fordiffusion of certain analytes (e.g., glucose) and gases (e.g., oxygen)therethrough. In some embodiments, the particle-containing domain has aglucose diffusion coefficient greater than about 1×10⁻¹⁵ m²/s in vivo,preferably greater than about 1×10⁻¹³ m²/s, and more preferably greaterthan about 1×10⁻¹⁰ m²/s. In some embodiments, the particle-containingdomain has an oxygen diffusion coefficient greater than about 1×10⁻¹¹m²/s, preferably greater than about 1×10⁻⁹ m²/s, and more preferablygreater than about 1×10⁻⁷ m²/s.

The use of conductive particles dispersed in a non-conductive polymer toform the particle-containing domain provides a number of advantages withrespect to noise reduction. Namely, by oxidizing/reducing noise-causingspecies at a location other than the working electrode, the non-glucoserelated signal (e.g., constant and/or non-constant noise) can be reducedor eliminated, thereby increasing sensor accuracy. Advantageously, knownthin-film, printing or molding methods (e.g., dip, spray, mold, print,and the like; onto a support or self-supporting) can be used information of the particle-containing domain.

The particle-containing domain can be used to serve a variety offunctions other than noise reduction. For example, in some embodiments,the particle-containing domain can be used in an oxygen-generatingmembrane. There typically exists a molar excess of glucose relative tothe amount of oxygen in blood and interstitial fluid. For every freeoxygen molecule in extracellular fluid, there can be more than 100glucose molecules present (see Updike et al., Diabetes Care 5:207-21(1982)). When a glucose-monitoring reaction becomes oxygen-limited,linearity of glucose measurement response cannot be achieved aboveminimal glucose concentrations. While the use of a semipermeablemembrane (e.g., a diffusion resistance domain) situated over the enzymedomain to control the flux of glucose and oxygen can increase the levelof glucose concentration at which linearity can be achieved, the use ofa layer capable of generating oxygen can further increase theaforementioned level of oxygen, and/or allow for a reduction in thethickness of the diffusion resistance domain, or even entirely eliminatethe need for a diffusion resistance domain. In turn, this allows for thedesign of a glucose sensor with very high sensitivity. In someembodiments, the electroactive surface of the working electrode can bebiased at first potential (e.g., 1.2V), to electrolytically break downwater, through which a sufficient amount of oxygen can be generated toensure that oxygen is in excess of glucose, so that glucose is thelimiting factor in the measurement process, instead of oxygen. Theoxygen generated from this process then diffuses through to theparticle-containing layer, which can be biased at a second potentiallower than the first potential, and to an enzyme layer that is adjacent(distal or proximal) to the particle-containing layer. Optionally, anoxygen permeable layer, such as one comprising PTFE or Teflon®, can bedisposed between the particle-containing layer and the electroactivesurface. In these embodiments, the particle-containing layer can serveas a sensor element to measure glucose concentration.

In other embodiments, one or more particle-containing domains can beused to create a layered sensor comprising multiple sensor elements thatare layer-separated. For instance, the membrane system may comprisemultiple (e.g., two, three, four, or more) enzyme layers interspersedwith particle-containing domains configured to selectively allow certainanalytes to pass therethrough and configured to block or reduce the flowtherethrough of other analytes and/or products (e.g., H₂O₂) ofelectrochemical reactions involving analytes. As an example, in oneembodiment, the membrane system may comprise a first enzyme layerconfigured to catalyze the electrochemical reaction of a first analyte,a second enzyme layer configured to catalyze the electrochemicalreaction of a second analyte, and a third enzyme layer configured tocatalyze the electrochemical reaction of a third analyte. Associatedwith the three enzyme layers are three sensor elements in the form ofparticle-containing domains and/or the electrode electroactive surfaceconfigured to measure products of the afore-mentioned electrochemicalreactions. In alternative embodiments, one or more of theparticle-containing domains and/or the electrode electroactive surfacemay directly measure the analyte, instead of the product of theanalyte's reaction with a co-reactant. As another example, the multiplesensor elements of the sensor can each be configured to detect glucose,with each configured to measure glucose using a different mechanism orsetting. For instance, the plurality of sensor elements may each beconfigured to measure glucose using a different bias potential.Alternatively or additionally, the plurality of sensor elements may eachbe tuned to measure a specific glucose concentration range that differsfrom that of the other sensor elements. In still another embodiment, themembrane system may comprise a sensor element configured to measure ananalyte and another sensor element configured to measure a drug ofinterest. In this particular embodiment, the particle-containing domainmay be used to preferentially screen out the drug of interest from theanalyte-sensing sensor element.

The particle-containing domain may also be used to serve as cover layer,i.e., a layer that is most distal with respect to the electrodeelectroactive surface, to physically protect the other membrane layersproximal to the cover layer, and to serve as an electrical connector.For example, in one embodiment, the reference electrode may comprise aAg/AgCl layer disposed over an electrode surface, and aparticle-containing domain may be provided to cover the Ag/AgCl layer,so as to prevent silver-containing particulates from coming off themembrane system and into host tissue, all the while still allowing anelectrical connection to the reference electrode.

In some embodiments, the membrane applied to an analyte sensor includesa particle-containing domain 50 including a dispersion of a plurality ofconductive particles in an analyte-permeable polymer material. In oneexemplary embodiment, the dispersion is applied to the sensor afterenzyme domain formation (e.g., such that the particle-containing domainis more distal to the electroactive surface than the enzyme domain). Thedispersion can be applied either directly on the enzyme domain, oradditional membrane domains and/or layers (e.g., interference domain,resistance domain, and the like) can be applied to the sensor(before/after enzyme domain formation) prior to application of thedispersion. In some embodiments, the dispersion is applied directly onthe enzyme domain. The dispersion can be applied by any thin filmtechnique known in the art, such as but not limited to dipping,spraying, spin-coating, molding, vapor deposition, and the like. In someembodiments, one or more layers of the dispersion are applied by dippingthe sensor into the particle-containing domain material, followed bycuring. In some embodiments, the particle-containing domain is formed ofa single layer of the material. In other embodiments, theparticle-containing domain is formed of two or more layers (e.g., two ormore dips, with curing following each dip) of the dispersion. Inpreferred embodiments, the particle-containing domain is formed of about2, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20 or 30 layers of the cured dispersion. In someembodiments, the particle-containing domain can be formed separatelyfrom the sensor (e.g., as a film) and subsequently applied thereto(e.g., by wrapping the film around at least a portion of the in vivoportion of a completed sensor). In some embodiments, aparticle-containing domain can be applied to the sensor as one or morelayers by applying the non-conductive component to the sensor, followedby rolling the sensor in the conductive component, followed by curing.For example, in one embodiment, alternating layers of conductive andnon-conductive components can be applied to the sensor to form theparticle-containing domain (e.g., by sequentially applying thenon-conductive component and rolling the sensor in the conductivecomponent one or more times).

While the above embodiments of the particle-containing domain aredescribed in the context of being non-powered, in some embodiments, theparticle-containing domain is powered, such as by applying a potentialthereto. For example, the voltage setting necessary to react withnoise-causing species depends on the target noise-causing species, forexample, from about ±0.1 V to about ±1.2 V for noise-causing species ofH₂O₂-detecting electrochemical sensor. In some circumstances, such aswith a sensor configured to detect another analyte, for example, higherand/or lower voltages (e.g., less than −1.2 V and greater than +1.2 V)may be necessary to react with noise-causing species. In someembodiments, an external potentiostat or other sensor electronics is/areoperably connected to the particle-containing domain, such that a biaspotential can be applied thereto, thereby enabling the electrochemicaloxidation/reduction of the noise-causing species. In some embodiments,wherein the powered particle-containing domain is set at a potential offrom about ±0.6 to about ±1.2 V, both oxygen-generation andnoise-causing species modification can be achieved. In some embodiments,wherein the powered particle-containing domain is set at a potentialbelow about ±0.6 V, the powered particle-containing domain will functionto electrochemically oxidize/reduce noise-causing species. In someembodiments, a potential of about ±0.1V to about ±0.8V is applied to theparticle-containing domain, such that at least one non-constantnoise-causing species is electrochemically reduced/oxidized, such thatthe non-constant noise component of the total signal is less than about20% (of the total signal). Preferably the non-constant noise componentof the signal is less than about 10% of the total signal. Morepreferably, the non-constant noise component of the signal is less thanabout 5% of the total signal. In some embodiments, it is preferred toapply a potential of from about ±0.3V to about ±0.7V to theparticle-containing domain, such that the non-constant noise componentof the signal is less than about 20%, 15%, 10% or 5% of the totalsignal. In more preferred embodiments, the potential applied to theparticle-containing domain is from about ±0.5V to about ±0.6V, such thatthe non-constant noise component of the signal is less than about 20%,15%, 10% or 5% of the total signal. In some further embodiments, apotential applied to the particle-containing domain can be constant,cyclical, pulsed, intermittent, variable, or a combination thereof. Forexample, in some embodiments, the potential applied to theparticle-containing domain is set at a constant voltage (e.g., ±0.2V,±0.5V, ±0.7V, etc.). In another exemplary embodiment, a pulsed potentialapplied to the particle-containing domain is turned on and off. In stillanother example, in one embodiment, the potential is oscillated betweenat least two potentials, such as between ±0.1V and ±0.6V, or such asbetween ±0.2V and ±0.5V.

In one exemplary embodiment, a “powered” particle-containing domain is amembrane domain formed of conductive particles dispersed in ananalyte-permeable polymer, as described elsewhere herein, andoperatively connected to sensor electronics. In some embodiments, thepowered particle-containing domain is configured to be between theenzyme domain and the outside fluid, when the sensor is implanted invivo. In some embodiments, the powered particle-containing domain isformed adjacent to the enzyme domain. In a further embodiment, at leastone additional domain (resistance, interference, cell disruptive and/orcell impermeable domain) is formed above and/or below theparticle-containing domain (e.g., more proximal to and/or distal to theelectroactive surface of the electrode than the poweredparticle-containing domain). In some embodiments, the poweredparticle-containing domain is configured as a most distal domain of themembrane. In some circumstances, at least one intervening domain (e.g.,a resistance and/or interference domain) is formed between the enzymedomain and the particle-containing domain.

Some analytes can fall to such low-levels that they are difficult toaccurately measure with standard sensors. In some embodiments, thepowered particle-containing domain can be configured as a plurality ofalternating polarized layers (e.g., alternately anodically orcathodically polarized by applying alternate voltages to the layers),such that a molecule (e.g., an analyte, a noise-causing species) can bealternately and repeatedly oxidized and reduced as the molecule passesthrough at least some of the layers. In some embodiments, the noisereducing domain comprises a plurality of alternately polarized layer andis configured to amplify an analyte signal (e.g., the signal of a verylow concentration analyte). For example, in one embodiment, the analyteis reduced as it passes through a first layer, then the reduced analyteis oxidized as it passes through the second layer, then oxidized analyteis reduced again as it passes through the third layer, then reducedanalyte is oxidized a second time as it passes through the fourth layer,and so on, such that the analyte signal is amplified. Thus, accuratemeasurement of reduced analyte concentrations (e.g., about 80 mg/dL, 70mg/dL, 60 mg/dL, 50 mg/dL, 40 mg/dL, 30 mg/dL, 20 mg/dL, 10 mg/dLglucose or less) is enabled.

In some embodiments, it is preferred to form a particle-containingdomain wherein the conductive particles function as electrochemicalcells (e.g., Galvanic cells) having a potential sufficient to render anon-constant noise-causing species molecule substantially unable tointeract with the sensor's electroactive surface. Since this type ofparticle-containing domain is configured and arranged to generate apotential, it can be referred to as a “self-powered” particle-containingdomain. Accordingly, sufficient quantities (e.g., densities) of bothpositive and negative conductive particles are selected and dispersedwithin the non-conductive component, wherein the positive particles andnegative particles are configured and arranged such that a positiveparticle and a negative particle form an “electrochemical cell” having apotential sufficient to render a non-constant noise-causing speciesmolecule substantially unable to electrochemically react with theelectroactive surface. In preferred embodiments, the plurality ofpositive and negative particles form a sufficient number of sites forthe electrochemical oxidation/reduction of non-constant noise-causingspecies diffusing through the particle-containing domain, such that thenon-constant non-analyte-related noise signal component is less than 20%of the total signal. For example, particles of two dissimilar metals,such as but not limited to silver and gold particles, or platinum andiron particles. Preferably, a sufficient concentration (e.g., from about20% to about 70%) of each type of conductive particles is dispersed inthe non-conductive material such that a potential difference generatedbetween the two types of conductive particles is sufficient to reactwith a wider variety/spectrum of noise-causing species than is possiblewith a single type of conductive material, or in some circumstances, theanalyte. In other words, the two types of conductive particles behave as“miniature batteries.” In preferred embodiments, the conductiveparticles (e.g., dissimilar metal particle pairs) have sufficientconcentration that they are within the diffusion path of noise-causingspecies. In certain circumstances, it is preferred to apply a potentialto this type of particle-containing domain (e.g., powered).

While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that a poweredparticle-containing domain can reduce current that can be generated byone or more noise-causing species (e.g., diffusing through theparticle-containing domain) having different redox potentials. Forexample, the conductive particles can form a network (within theparticle-containing domain) that can function as an array ofmicroelectrodes. Additionally, the powered particle-containing domaincan provide all of the advantages described herein for non-poweredparticle-containing domains.

Sensor Electronics

In preferred embodiments, the sensor includes sensor electronics,including a processing module, a receiver, and the like, such as thoseapplicable to a variety of continuous analyte sensors, such asnon-invasive, minimally invasive, and/or invasive (e.g., transcutaneous,intravascular and wholly implantable) sensors. For example, descriptionsof sensor electronics and data processing as well as the receiverelectronics and data processing can be found in U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2005-0245799-A1, U.S. Patent Application PublicationNo. US-2006-0015020-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2006-0020187-A1, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0208245-A1, each of which is incorporated herein by reference inits entirety. In general, electrodes of the sensor described above areelectrically coupled at their ends to the sensor electronics. In someembodiments, the particle-containing domain is electrically coupled tothe sensor electronics.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram that illustrates one possible configuration ofthe sensor electronics 132 in one embodiment. In this embodiment, apotentiostat 134 is shown, which is operatively connected to anelectrode system (e.g., FIG. 2) and provides a voltage to theelectrodes, which biases the sensor to enable measurement of a currentvalue indicative of the analyte concentration in the host (also referredto as the analog portion). The potentiostat 134 (or an optionalpotentiostat, not shown) is operably associated with the poweredparticle-containing domain, to provide a bias potential foroxidizing/reducing noise-causing species, as described elsewhere herein.In some embodiments, the potentiostat includes a resistor (not shown)that translates the current into voltage. In some alternativeembodiments, a current to frequency converter is provided that isconfigured to continuously integrate the measured current, for example,using a charge counting device. In the illustrated embodiment, an A/Dconverter 136 digitizes the analog signal into “counts” for processing.Accordingly, the resulting raw data stream in counts is directly relatedto the current measured by the potentiostat 134.

A processor module 138 is the central control unit that controls theprocessing of the sensor electronics 132. In some embodiments, theprocessor module includes a microprocessor, however a computer systemother than a microprocessor can be used to process data as describedherein, for example an ASIC can be used for some or all of the sensor'scentral processing. The processor typically provides semi-permanentstorage of data, for example, storing data such as sensor identifier(ID) and programming to process data streams (for example, programmingfor data smoothing and/or replacement of signal artifacts such as isdescribed in more detail elsewhere herein). The processor additionallycan be used for the system's cache memory, for example for temporarilystoring recent sensor data. In some embodiments, the processor modulecomprises memory storage components such as ROM, RAM, dynamic-RAM,static-RAM, non-static RAM, EEPROM, rewritable ROMs, flash memory, andthe like. In one exemplary embodiment, ROM 138 b provides semi-permanentstorage of data, for example, storing data such as sensor identifier(ID) and programming to process data streams (e.g., programming forsignal artifacts detection and/or replacement such as describedelsewhere herein). In one exemplary embodiment, RAM 138 a can be usedfor the system's cache memory, for example for temporarily storingrecent sensor data.

In some embodiments, the processor module comprises a digital filter,for example, an IIR or FIR filter, configured to smooth the raw datastream from the A/D converter. Generally, digital filters are programmedto filter data sampled at a predetermined time interval (also referredto as a sample rate). In some embodiments, wherein the potentiostat isconfigured to measure the analyte at discrete time intervals, these timeintervals determine the sample rate of the digital filter. In somealternative embodiments, wherein the potentiostat is configured tocontinuously measure the analyte, for example, using acurrent-to-frequency converter, the processor module can be programmedto request a digital value from the A/D converter at a predeterminedtime interval, also referred to as the acquisition time. In thesealternative embodiments, the values obtained by the processor areadvantageously averaged over the acquisition time due the continuity ofthe current measurement. Accordingly, the acquisition time determinesthe sample rate of the digital filter. In preferred embodiments, theprocessor module is configured with a programmable acquisition time,namely, the predetermined time interval for requesting the digital valuefrom the A/D converter is programmable by a user within the digitalcircuitry of the processor module. An acquisition time of from about 2seconds to about 512 seconds is preferred; however any acquisition timecan be programmed into the processor module. A programmable acquisitiontime is advantageous in optimizing noise filtration, time lag, andprocessing/battery power.

Preferably, the processor module is configured to build the data packetfor transmission to an outside source, for example, an RF transmissionto a receiver as described in more detail below. Generally, the datapacket comprises a plurality of bits that can include asensor/transmitter ID code, raw data, filtered data, and/or errordetection or correction. The processor module can be configured totransmit any combination of raw and/or filtered data.

A battery 144 is operatively connected to the processor 138 and providesthe necessary power for the sensor (e.g., FIG. 2, 34). In oneembodiment, the battery is a Lithium Manganese Dioxide battery, howeverany appropriately sized and powered battery can be used (e.g., AAA,Nickel-cadmium, Zinc-carbon, Alkaline, Lithium, Nickel-metal hydride,Lithium-ion, Zinc-air, Zinc-mercury oxide, Silver-zinc, orhermetically-sealed). In some embodiments the battery is rechargeable.In some embodiments, a plurality of batteries can be used to power thesystem. In yet other embodiments, the receiver can be transcutaneouslypowered via an inductive coupling, for example. A Quartz Crystal 146 isoperatively connected to the processor 138 and maintains system time forthe computer system as a whole.

An RF module (e.g., an RF Transceiver) 148 is operably connected to theprocessor 138 and transmits the sensor data from the sensor to areceiver. Although an RF transceiver is shown here, some otherembodiments can include a wired rather than wireless connection to thereceiver. A second quartz crystal 154 provides the system time forsynchronizing the data transmissions from the RF transceiver. It isnoted that the transceiver 148 can be substituted with a transmitter inother embodiments. In some alternative embodiments, however, othermechanisms, such as optical, infrared radiation (IR), ultrasonic, andthe like, can be used to transmit and/or receive data.

Additional description of sensor electronics can be found in U.S. Pat.No. 7,366,556, U.S. Pat. No. 7,310,544, U.S. Patent ApplicationPublication No. US-2005-0154271-A1, U.S. Patent Application PublicationNo. US-2005-0203360-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2005-0027463-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2006-0020188-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2006-258929-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0032706-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0016381-A1, U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2007-0203966-A1, and U.S. Patent Application Publication No.US-2008-0033254-A1, each of which is incorporated herein by reference inits entirety.

Particulate Electrodes

In some embodiments, the material used to form the particle-containingdomain (e.g., the conductive and non-conductive components) can beformed into an electrode (referred to as a “particulate electrode”herein), such as but not limited to a replacement for a wire electrode,for example. In an exemplary embodiment, a particulate electrode isformed as a drawn “wire,” such as by extrusion and/or molding of theparticle-containing domain material. For example, such a particulateelectrode wire could be used as the working electrode 38 of FIGS. 2 and3, in some embodiments. However, the particulate electrode can have anyuseful shape, such as but not limited to planar, rectangular, ovoid,spheroid, round, circular, cylindrical, prismatic and coiled (e.g., 30,FIG. 2) shapes, sheets, films, and the like. Additionally, theparticulate electrode is configured and arranged for connection to thesensor electronics, such that the sensor electronics can generate asignal associated with the analyte (e.g., glucose, calcium, pH, sodium,potassium, oxygen, carbon dioxide/bicarbonate, blood nitrogen urea(BUN), creatinine, albumin, total protein, alkaline phosphatase, alanineamino transferase, aspartate amino transferase, bilirubin, and/orhematocrit) concentration of a host. In one exemplary embodiment, theworking electrode is a wire-shaped electrode formed from a plurality ofplatinum particles dispersed in a non-conductive, non-analyte-permeablematerial (or an analyte-permeable material), wherein the platinumparticles are of a sufficient concentration that H₂O₂ can be oxidized atthe electrode surface, by loss of an electron, and a current isgenerated that is detected by the sensor electronics. While not wishingto be bound by theory, it is believed that replacing a metal electrode(e.g., a platinum electrode) with a particulate electrode (e.g.,platinum particles distributed in a non-conductive material) can reducemanufacturing costs, such as due to the use of a smaller amount of anexpensive material (e.g., platinum), for example.

In one exemplary embodiment, a continuous analyte sensor, configured forin vivo detection of an analyte, includes a particulate electrode formedof a non-analyte-permeable material and a plurality of conductiveparticles distributed throughout the non-analyte-permeable material, asensor membrane, and sensor electronics configured and arranged togenerate a signal associated with the analyte. In preferred embodiments,the non-analyte-permeable material is a polymer. Analyte-impermeablepolymers (e.g., polysulfones, polyesters, polyurethanes, vinyls,acetates) can be used as the non-analyte-permeable material in someembodiments. However, in some alternative embodiments, analyte-permeablepolymers (e.g., polyurethanes including hydrophilic groups, siliconepolycarbonate urethanes, polyurethanes, silicones, Silicone-PLURONIC®blends, and the like) or blends of analyte-permeable andanalyte-impermeable polymers can be used in place of thenon-analyte-permeable material. In some embodiments, the conductiveparticles (e.g., platinum, platinum-iridium, iridium, palladium,graphite, gold, silver, silver chloride, carbon, or conductive polymers,or mixtures, alloys or nanocomposites thereof) are from about 1 wt. % orless to about 60 wt. % or more of the electrode. In more preferredembodiments, the conductive particles are from about 5 wt. %, 10 wt. %,15 wt. %, 20 wt. %, 25 wt. % or 30 wt. % to about 35 wt. %, 40 wt. %, 45wt. %, 50 wt. %, 55 wt. % or 60 wt. % of the electrode. Additionally,the particulate electrode can be formed into a variety of shapes, suchas but not limited to a wire, a fiber, a string, a sheet, a rod, an orb,a sphere, a ball, an egg, a pyramid, a cone, a cube, a rectangle, apolygon, or a polyhedron.

The size of the individual particles, in diameter or the longestdimension, can be selected, e.g., in view of the shape of theparticulate electrode or the nature of the conductive materialcomprising the particle, however a particle size of from about 1 nm orless to about 500 microns or more, preferably from about 10, 20, 50,100, or 500 nm to about 1, 10, 50, 100, 200, 300, or 400 microns isgenerally preferred. The particles can be of a substantially uniformsize distribution, that is, a majority of the particles can have adiameter (or longest dimension) generally within about ±50% or less ofthe average, mean, or mode diameter (or average, mean, or mode longestdimension), preferably within about ±45%, 40%, 35%, 30%, 25%, or 20% orless of the average, mean, or mode diameter (or average, mean, or modelongest dimension). While a uniform size distribution may be generallypreferred, individual particles having diameters (or longest dimension)above or below the preferred range may be present, and may evenconstitute the majority of the particles present, provided that asubstantial amount of particles having diameters in the preferred rangeare present. In other embodiments, it may be desirable that theparticles constitute a mixture of two or more particle sizedistributions, for example, a portion of the mixture may include adistribution on nanometer-sized particles and a portion of the mixturemay include a distribution of micron-sized particles. The particles ofpreferred embodiments may have different forms. For example, a particlemay constitute a single, integrated particle not adhered to orphysically or chemically attached to another particle. Alternatively, aparticle may constitute two or more agglomerated or clustered smallerparticles that are held together by physical or chemical attractions orbonds to form a single larger particle. The particles may have differentatomic level structures, including but not limited to, for example,crystalline, amorphous, and combinations thereof. In variousembodiments, it may be desirable to include different combinations ofparticles having various properties, including, but not limited to,particle size, shape or structure, chemical composition, crystallinity,and the like. The individual particles can be of any desired shape(e.g., substantially spherical, faceted, needle-like, rod-like,irregular, or the like). The particles can be irregularly distributed inthe particulate electrode, uniformly distributed throughout theparticulate electrode, or the electrode can include a gradient ofparticle sizes, or domains with different particle sizes. The particlescan be identical in one or more features (composition, shape, size), ordifferent in one or more features (e.g., a bimodal size distribution ofcompositionally-identical particles, or particles of different size butidentical composition). The particles can include metal oxides, ornonconductive components (e.g., a nonconducting core coated with orsurrounded by metal or another conductor), provided that the particlesimpart a desired degree of conductivity to the electrode. The particlescan be solid, porous (with pores open to the surface of the particle),or contain enclosed voids.

In one exemplary embodiment, the particulate electrode includes asupport upon which the electrode is disposed. For example, the supportcan be formed of a dielectric material, such as plastic, polymer,ceramic or glass. The particulate electrode can be disposed on thesupport as a film made of the non-analyte-permeable material and theplurality of conductive particles, using any thin- or thick-filmtechniques known in the art, such as silk screening, sputtering,etching, spin coating, non-impact printing, impact printing and thelike.

In preferred embodiments, a sensor membrane system is disposed on theelectrode, as described elsewhere herein. For example, in the case of a“wire”-shaped particulate electrode, the membrane system can be disposedcoaxially thereon, such as is shown in FIG. 2, for example.

In some embodiments, the particulate electrode is a working electrode,as described elsewhere herein, and the sensor includes at least oneadditional electrode, such as but not limited to a second workingelectrode, a reference electrode, a counter electrode, and the like. Inone exemplary embodiment, the additional electrode is a second workingelectrode and comprises a plurality of conductive particles distributedthroughout a polymer material (e.g., analyte-permeable or non-analytepermeable). The conductive particles and polymer material can be thesame as those used to form the working electrode (e.g., first workingelectrode, above) or they can be different materials. For example, ifthe additional electrode is a second working electrode, it can be formedof platinum particles distributed in a polymer material, whereas, if theadditional electrode is a reference electrode, it can be formed ofsilver/silver-chloride particles distributed in the polymer material.Accordingly, the conductive particles and polymer materials selected toform each electrode can be selected to optimize sensor function.

While not wishing to be bound by theory, the particulate electrodeprovides for simplified manufacturing techniques and isformable/conformable into a variety of shapes and/or depositable onto ona variety of shaped supports. For example, in some embodiments, thematerial used to form the particulate electrode (e.g., particles of theconductive component dispersed in the non-conductive component) can bemolded and/or shaped into any desired shape or size. For example, thematerial can be mold into a geometry optimized for implantation, areduced footprint, and the like. For example, in one exemplaryembodiment, the material for the particulate electrode is formed byblending a plurality of conductive particles and a liquid polymer toform the electrode material, using known techniques. Then theparticulate electrode is formed from the blended electrode material.After the electrode has been formed, a membrane system is applied; andthe electrode is functionally connected to sensor electronics (e.g.,wherein the sensor electronics are configured and arranged to detect asignal associated with an analyte). In some embodiments, the electrodematerial is extruded to form the electrode. However, in otherembodiments, the electrode material is deposited on a support. In stillother embodiments, the electrode can be formed by molding the electrodematerial.

In some embodiments, the powered particulate electrode is configured asa plurality of alternating polarized layers (e.g., alternatelyanodically or cathodically polarized by applying alternate voltages tothe layers), as described elsewhere herein. While not wishing to bebound by theory, it is believed that such a structure can be used todetect an analyte at a very low concentration; namely, because as theanalyte passes through at least some of the multiple layers, it can bealternately oxidized and reduced a plurality of time, thereby amplifyingthe signal. In one exemplary embodiment, a detectable electrochemicaltag is configured to detect an analyte of interest. For example, a probeconfigured to detect a target molecule is labeled with a species (e.g.,an analyte, acetaminophen, ascorbic acid and the like) that can bedetected by the powered particulate electrode. In one exemplaryembodiment, an RNA probe to detect the transcripts of an expressed genecan be labeled with acetaminophen. The labeled probe is mixed with asample containing expressed RNAs, such that hybridization can occurbetween the probe and RNAs containing the probe's target sequence,followed by washing or another type of purification of the RNA hybrids,and then detection of the probe (e.g., via the acetaminophen) with apowered particulate electrode of this embodiment.

Advantageously, the material properties of the polymer, such as but notlimited to strength and resistance to fatigue, can be imparted to theparticulate electrode. Additionally, the use of conductive particlesdispersed in a polymer to form the particulate electrode, such as toreplace the platinum working electrode, can substantially lowermanufacturing costs, relative to the cost of traditional materials dueto the high surface area of the electroactive surfaces in conjunctionwith a reduced volume of electrode material.

EXAMPLES Example 1 Effect of Particle-Containing Domain Composition onSensor Function

Small structured continuous glucose sensors were constructed, includinga membrane having enzyme (e.g., GOX) and polyurethane resistancedomains. The sensors were divided into three groups, 1) a control grouphaving no particle-containing domain applied (Control), 2) a test grouphaving a non-powered particle-containing domain including platinumparticles and carbon particles (e.g., the conductive component)dispersed in a silicone polymer blend (the non-conductive component)(Si+Pt/C), and 3) another test group having a particle-containing domainincluding only platinum particles dispersed in a silicone polymer blend(Si+Pt). The completed sensors were placed in a PBS buffer solutionuntil sensor break-in was complete. Then the sensors were sequentiallyplaced in PBS solutions containing glucose (100-mg/dL), H₂O₂ (200 μM)and/or acetaminophen (220 μM). The H₂O₂ solution represents aninternally derived noise-producing species (e.g., produced inside thehost's body). The acetaminophen solution represents and externallyderived noise-producing species (e.g., administered to a host).

Test results are shown in Table 1. When the control sensors were exposedto the H₂O₂ and acetaminophen solutions, the signal increasedapproximately 7-fold and 4-fold, respectively. The inclusion of anoise-reduction domain (Si+Pt/C and Si+Pt) substantially increased theglucose signal (e.g., about 3- and 6-fold, respectively) andsubstantially decreased H₂O₂ and acetaminophen signals, as compared tocontrol sensors.

TABLE 1 Average Signal Measured (pA) Test Solution Control Si + Pt/CSi + Pt Glucose (100 mg/dL) 1,140 3,250 6,220 H₂O₂ (200 μM) 7,470 890810 Acetaminophen (0.22 μM) 4,020 1,170 1,970

While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that aparticle-containing domain formed of a conductive component (e.g., themetal particles) dispersed in a non-conductive component (e.g., thesilicone material) can substantially reduce signal from noise-causingspecies by oxidizing or reducing the noise-causing species, such thatthe noise-causing species is rendered substantially unable to interactwith the sensor's electroactive surface.

Example 2 Effect of Conductive Component Concentration onParticle-Containing Domain Function

Small structured continuous glucose sensors were constructed, includinga membrane having enzyme (e.g., GOX) and polyurethane resistancedomains. The sensors were divided into three groups and thenparticle-containing domain materials, having different concentrations ofplatinum particles were applied. The non-powered particle-containingdomain of the first group (Si) included no conductive component. Thenon-powered particle-containing domain of the second group (Si+0.1% Pt)included 0.1 wt % platinum particles (the conductive component)dispersed in the silicone material (the non-conductive component). Thenon-powered particle-containing domain of the third group (Si+1% Pt)included 1 wt % platinum particles (the conductive component) dispersedin the silicone material (the non-conductive component). The completedsensors were placed in a PBS buffer solution until sensor break-in wascomplete; followed by sequential testing in PBS solutions containingglucose (100-mg/dL), H₂O₂ (200 μM) or acetaminophen (220 μM).

Table 2 illustrates the test results. Compared to the results of the Sisensors (no conductive component), addition of platinum particles to theparticle-containing domain (Si+0.1% Pt and Si+1% Pt) had no significanteffect on glucose signal measured. However, addition of platinumparticles substantially reduced the signal from both internally andexternally derived noise-causing species. For example, inclusion of 1%Pt particles in the particle-containing domain resulted in anapproximately 50% in the H₂O₂ signal, while the 1% Pt blocked nearly100% of the H₂O₂ signal. In another example, the 1% Pt blocked about 46%of the acetaminophen signal, while 0.1% Pt had no significant effect onthe acetaminophen signal measured.

TABLE 2 Average Signal Measured (pA) Test Solution Si Si + 0.1% Pt Si +1% Pt Glucose (100 mg/dL) 15,590 16,690 11,780 H₂O₂ (200 μM) 6,560 3,520470 Acetaminophen (0.22 μM) 7,660 7,730 4,200

While not wishing to be bound by theory, it is believed that aparticle-containing domain including about 0.1 wt %, 1 wt % or moreplatinum particles can increase sensor glucose sensitivity whilesubstantially blocking signal from internally and/or externally derivednoise-causing species (e.g., H₂O₂ or acetaminophen, for example).

Example 3 Effectiveness of Particle-Containing Domains Constructed byAlternate Methods

Small structured continuous glucose sensors were constructed, includinga membrane having enzyme (e.g., GOX) and polyurethane resistancedomains. The sensors were then sprayed with an additional layer ofresistance domain material, including 5% Chronothane H (e.g., thenon-conductive component) in THF. Next, the sensors were divided intothree groups. The first group of sensors had no particle-containingdomain applied. The second group of sensors was sprayed with anadditional 24 layers of the polyurethane solution and then cured. Thethird group of sensors was sprayed with an additional 3 layers of thepolyurethane solution, lightly rolled in platinum particles and thencured.

The three groups of sensors were placed in a PBS solution until sensorbreak-in was complete. Then, the sensors were tested sequentially in PBSsolutions containing 40 mg/dL glucose, 200 mg/dL glucose, 400 mg/dLglucose, 200 μM H₂O₂ or 0.12 acetaminophen, and the ratio of noisesignal to glucose signal examined. Table 3 shows the experimentalresults.

TABLE 3 Sensor Signal Ratio Sensitivity Acetaminophen/ Sensor Type(pA/mg/dL) H₂O₂/Glucose Glucose Control 9.84 2.89 1.9 24x Polyurethane28.01 0.92 0.59 3x Polyurethane + Pt 28.5 0.15 0.77

As shown in Table 3, applying the non-conductive material (polyurethane)of the non-powered particle-containing domain to the sensor bothsubstantially increased glucose sensitivity and substantially reducedsignal from the exemplary noise-causing species (H₂O₂ andacetaminophen). Application of the conductive material (platinumparticles) to the non-powered particle-containing domain substantiallyattenuated noise from H₂O₂ an additional amount over the H₂O₂ signalblocked by the non-conductive material alone. While not wishing to bebound by theory, it is believed that a particle-containing domain formedof a conductive component (e.g., the metal particles) dispersed in anon-conductive component (e.g., the polyurethane material) cansubstantially reduce signal from noise-causing species by oxidizing orreducing the noise-causing species, such that the noise-causing speciesis rendered substantially unable to interact with the sensor'selectroactive surface.

Methods and devices that are suitable for use in conjunction withaspects of the preferred embodiments are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No.4,994,167; U.S. Pat. No. 4,757,022; U.S. Pat. No. 6,001,067; U.S. Pat.No. 6,741,877; U.S. Pat. No. 6,702,857; U.S. Pat. No. 6,558,321; U.S.Pat. No. 6,931,327; U.S. Pat. No. 6,862,465; U.S. Pat. No. 7,074,307;U.S. Pat. No. 7,081,195; U.S. Pat. No. 7,108,778; U.S. Pat. No.7,110,803; U.S. Pat. No. 7,192,450; U.S. Pat. No. 7,226,978; U.S. Pat.No. 7,310,544; U.S. Pat. No. 7,364,592; U.S. Pat. No. 7,366,556; U.S.Pat. No. 7,424,318; U.S. Pat. No. 7,471,972; U.S. Pat. No. 7,460,898;U.S. Pat. No. 7,467,003; U.S. Pat. No. 7,497,827; U.S. Pat. No.7,519,408, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,583,990.

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Methods and devices that are suitable for use in conjunction withaspects of the preferred embodiments are disclosed in U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 09/447,227 filed Nov. 22, 1999 and entitled “DEVICEAND METHOD FOR DETERMINING ANALYTE LEVELS”; U.S. patent application Ser.No. 11/654,135 filed Jan. 17, 2007 and entitled “POROUS MEMBRANES FORUSE WITH IMPLANTABLE DEVICES”; U.S. patent application Ser. No.11/654,140 filed Jan. 17, 2007 and entitled “MEMBRANES FOR AN ANALYTESENSOR”; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/103,594 filed Apr. 15, 2008and entitled “BIOINTERFACE WITH MACRO- AND MICRO-ARCHITECTURE”; U.S.patent application Ser. No. 12/055,098 filed Mar. 25, 2008 and entitled“ANALYTE SENSOR”; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/054,953 filed Mar.25, 2008 and entitled “ANALYTE SENSOR”; U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/133,789 filed Jun. 5, 2008 and entitled “INTEGRATED MEDICAMENTDELIVERY DEVICE FOR USE WITH CONTINUOUS ANALYTE SENSOR”; U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/139,305 filed Jun. 13, 2008 and entitled“ELECTRODE SYSTEMS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL SENSORS”; U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 12/182,073 filed Jul. 29, 2008 and entitled “INTEGRATEDRECEIVER FOR CONTINUOUS ANALYTE SENSOR”; U.S. patent application Ser.No. 12/260,017 filed Oct. 28, 2008 and entitled “SENSOR HEAD FOR USEWITH IMPLANTABLE DEVICES”; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/263,993filed Nov. 3, 2008 and entitled “SIGNAL PROCESSING FOR CONTINUOUSANALYTE SENSOR”; U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/264,835 filed Nov.4, 2008 and entitled “IMPLANTABLE ANALYTE SENSOR”; U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/362,194 filed Jan. 29, 2009 and entitled“CONTINUOUS CARDIAC MARKER SENSOR SYSTEM”; U.S. patent application Ser.No. 12/365,683 filed Feb. 4, 2009 and entitled “CONTINUOUS MEDICAMENTSENSOR SYSTEM FOR IN VIVO USE”; U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/390,304 filed Feb. 20, 2009 and entitled “SYSTEMS AND METHODS FORPROCESSING, TRANSMITTING AND DISPLAYING SENSOR DATA”; U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/390,205 filed Feb. 20, 2009 and entitled“SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR CUSTOMIZING DELIVERY OF SENSOR DATA”; U.S.patent application Ser. No. 12/390,290 filed Feb. 20, 2009 and entitled“SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING AND ALERT DELIVERY”;U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/413,231 filed Mar. 27, 2009 andentitled “POLYMER MEMBRANES FOR CONTINUOUS ANALYTE SENSORS”; U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/413,166 filed Mar. 27, 2009 and entitled“POLYMER MEMBRANES FOR CONTINUOUS ANALYTE SENSORS”; U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/509,396 filed Jul. 24, 2009 and entitled “SIGNALPROCESSING FOR CONTINUOUS ANALYTE SENSOR”; U.S. patent application Ser.No. 12/536,852 filed Aug. 6, 2009 and entitled “INTEGRATED DELIVERYDEVICE FOR CONTINUOUS GLUCOSE SENSOR”; U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/511,982 filed Jul. 29, 2009 and entitled “SILICONE BASED MEMBRANESFOR USE IN IMPLANTABLE GLUCOSE SENSORS”; and U.S. patent applicationSer. No. 12/535,620 filed Aug. 4, 2009 and entitled “ANALYTE SENSOR.”

All references cited herein, including but not limited to published andunpublished applications, patents, and literature references, areincorporated herein by reference in their entirety and are hereby made apart of this specification. To the extent publications and patents orpatent applications incorporated by reference contradict the disclosurecontained in the specification, the specification is intended tosupersede and/or take precedence over any such contradictory material.

Terms and phrases used in this document, and variations thereof, unlessotherwise expressly stated, should be construed as open ended as opposedto limiting. As examples of the foregoing, the term ‘including’ shouldbe read to mean ‘including, without limitation’ or the like; the term‘comprising’ as used herein is synonymous with ‘including,’‘containing,’ or ‘characterized by,’ and is inclusive or open-ended anddoes not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps; theterm ‘example’ is used to provide exemplary instances of the item indiscussion, not an exhaustive or limiting list thereof; and adjectivessuch as ‘known’, ‘normal’, ‘standard’, and terms of similar meaningshould not be construed as limiting the item described to a given timeperiod or to an item available as of a given time, but instead should beread to encompass known, normal, or standard technologies that may beavailable or known now or at any time in the future. Likewise, a groupof items linked with the conjunction ‘and’ should not be read asrequiring that each and every one of those items be present in thegrouping, but rather should be read as ‘and/of’ unless expressly statedotherwise. Similarly, a group of items linked with the conjunction ‘or’should not be read as requiring mutual exclusivity among that group, butrather should be read as ‘and/of’ unless expressly stated otherwise. Inaddition, as used in this application, the articles ‘a’ and ‘an’ shouldbe construed as referring to one or more than one (i.e., to at leastone) of the grammatical objects of the article. By way of example, ‘anelement’ means one element or more than one element.

The presence in some instances of broadening words and phrases such as‘one or more’, ‘at least’, ‘but not limited to’, or other like phrasesshall not be read to mean that the narrower case is intended or requiredin instances where such broadening phrases may be absent.

All numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, reaction conditions,and so forth used in the specification are to be understood as beingmodified in all instances by the term ‘about.’ Accordingly, unlessindicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth herein areapproximations that may vary depending upon the desired propertiessought to be obtained. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limitthe application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of anyclaims in any application claiming priority to the present application,each numerical parameter should be construed in light of the number ofsignificant digits and ordinary rounding approaches.

Furthermore, although the foregoing has been described in some detail byway of illustrations and examples for purposes of clarity andunderstanding, it is apparent to those skilled in the art that certainchanges and modifications may be practiced. Therefore, the descriptionand examples should not be construed as limiting the scope of theinvention to the specific embodiments and examples described herein, butrather to also cover all modification and alternatives coming with thetrue scope and spirit of the invention.

What is claimed is:
 1. A system for continuous in vivo measurement of an analyte in a host, the system comprising: a continuous analyte sensor configured for implantation in a host and configured to generate a signal indicative of an analyte concentration; and a layer disposed over at least a portion of the sensor, wherein the layer comprises a particle-containing domain comprising a metal, wherein the particle-containing domain is configured to react with at least one interfering species.
 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the particle-containing domain is more distal to the sensor than other domains of the layer.
 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the particle-containing domain comprises at least one material selected from the group consisting of platinum, platinum-iridium, iridium, palladium, graphite, gold, silver, silver chloride, carbon, and conductive polymers.
 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the metal comprises sputtered metal.
 5. The system of claim 4, wherein the sputtered metal is platinum.
 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the particle-containing domain comprises a conductive particles concentration that is sufficient for the particle-containing domain to function as a conductive film.
 7. The system of claim 1, wherein the particle-containing domain is configured to reduce flux therethrough of hydrogen peroxide.
 8. The system of claim 1, wherein the particle-containing domain is non-powered.
 9. The system of claim 1, wherein the particle-containing domain is powered.
 10. The system of claim 9, wherein the sensor electronics are configured to apply a potential to the particle-containing domain.
 11. The system of claim 1, wherein the layer comprises an analyte-permeable polymer.
 12. The system of claim 11, wherein the analyte-permeable polymer comprises a hydrophilic polymer.
 13. The system of claim 11, wherein the analyte-permeable polymer comprises at least one of polyurethane or silicone.
 14. The system of claim 1, wherein the sensor comprises an optical sensor.
 15. The system of claim 14, wherein the optical sensor is configured to detect fluorescence via a fiber optic.
 16. The system of claim 1, wherein the interfering species interferes with measurement of the analyte concentration to produce a signal that does not accurately represent the analyte concentration.
 17. The system of claim 1, wherein the interfering species is a reactive metabolic species.
 18. The system of claim 1, wherein the interfering species is a reactive oxygen species.
 19. The system of claim 1, wherein the interfering species is a reactive nitrogen species.
 20. The system of claim 1, wherein the interfering species is H₂O₂. 